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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



THE 

ROADMASTERS' ASSISTANT 



A MANUAL OF REFERENCE FOR THOSE HAVING TO 

DO WITH THE PERMANENT WAY OF 

AMERICAN RAILROADS 



,je*v>6^;u- rr ' * QU/vi-.e_ 



SECOND EDITION 



rUBLlSHED BY 

THE RAILROAD GAZETTE, 83 FULTON STREET, NEW YORK 
1904 






COPY B. 



, r^'c-'^' 



Copyright, 1904 

BY 

THE RAILROAD GAZETTE 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

1. General Remarks ..... 1 

2. Organization and Methods of Work . . 9 

3. Fences, Highway Crossings, Platforms and 

Wagon Roads . . . . . .19 

4. Miscellaneous Fixtures and Station Grounds 33 

5. Water Supply ...... 49 

G. Drainage . . . . . . .59 

7. Culverts, Trestles and Bridge Floors . 71 

8. Ballast ....... 81 

9. Cross-Ties 105 

10. Rails 119 

11. Rail Fastenings . . . . . .127 

12. Track Work 143 

13. Tools 167 

14. Frogs, Switches and Switch Stands . . 189 

15. Emergencies and Train Signals . . .223 

16. Fixed Signals 233 

17. Rules and Tables ..... 263 



PREFACE 



The Eoadmasters' Assistant and Section Masters' 
Guide was first published in 1871. Mr. William S. 
Huntington, the author, stated in his preface that it 
was his wish to make "a practical book for jiractical 
men." This he did, and the book at once became a 
standard railroad work. It was small and necessarily 
incomplete in many ways; but it was a useful guide 
and a counsellor to men of all ranks in the mainte- 
nance of way department. Drawing upon his own 
experience, Mr. Huntington set down quite as many 
ways of how not to do things as suggestions of how 
to do track work properly. Six years later, Mr. 
Charles Latimer, Chief Engineer of the Atlantic & 
Great Western, undertook to revise and enlarge the 
first edition. Following out Mr. Huntington's exam- 
ple, he retained the practical side, but at the same 
time expanded and generalized many of the sugges- 
tions and rules laid down by Mr. Huntington, so as to 
make the book as useful to the roadmaster on a nar- 
row gage road as it was to the roadmaster on a stand- 
ard gage road. This was in response largely to the 
spirit of the times, which was characterized by the 
now famous battle of the gages. There were few 
radical changes in track work between the time of 
Mr. Huntington and Mr. Latimer, so that to a great 
extent the information embodied in the first edition 
was equally applicable to the existing practice in 
maintenance of way work at the time the second edi- 
tion was published. 

For nearly twenty years after Mr. Latimer made his 
revision, the Roadmasters' Assistant held its position 
as a stjandard refereuce book, Not until 1898 was anj 



change made either in the arrangement or character 
of the subject matter. In 1898 Mr. George H. Paine 
undertook a third revision and brought the work 
down to the state of the art at that time. This was 
hardly a revision; it was practically a new book, be- 
cause the changes in twenty j^ears' time had been so 
far-reaching and so radical that but little of the sub- 
ject matter contained in the early editions was applic- 
able to the modern and improved methods and appli- 
ances then in use. During the last six years equally 
radical changes have come about, and it is now again 
necessary that the book be brought up to date and 
revised to correspond with the new and modern ideas 
and methods. The subject matter has been carefully 
edited, changed where necessary, and added to in 
many places. Most of the illustrations in this edition 
are new and represent the most modern appliances 
for track work. The same underlying principle of the 
original author to make a practical book for practical 
men has been adhered to throughout. Other books 
more voluminous and technical have been written 
within the last ten years, and no attempt has been 
made to approach them in completeness, for, by so 
doing, the primary object of this little book would 
have been lost sight of. 

November, 1904. 



CHAPTER I. 

General Remabks. 

An experience of something like seventy construc= 
3^ears in railroad construction has demon- t«on. 
strated the fact that the preparation of a 
piece of track for the passage of trains can 
be done best, cheapest and most quickly by 
well-organized gangs of men, headed by ex- 
perienced foremen. For this reason, a 
modern railroad is usually built and per- 
haps ballasted by contractors and is turned 
over to the maintenance-of-way depart- 
ment with the tracks and switches laid. 

The first duty which falls upon a road- Finishing 
master, after receiving charge of a newly up- 
built line, is the disagreeable one of fin- 
ishing up. Contractors are quite likely to 
leave their work in an unfinished condition, 
and the officers of a railroad on taking over 
a new line find that the cuts and banks are 
not sufficiently sloped; that the tracks need 
re-lining and re-surfacing; the ties re- 
spacing; and that the ditches, if any have 
ever been dug, are nearly, if not quite, 
filled up. 

After having seen that the track is in a opening 
safe condition and that loose rocks and rot- streams, 
ten trees are not likely to fall upon it, the 
roadmaster should at once make an inspec- 
tion of all waterways. The beds of the 
streams should be cleared of all loose ma- 
terial, both above and below, as well as un- 
derneath the openings; this should be par- 
ticularly looked after in the case -of wooden 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 



Cleaning 
culverts . 



Cleaning 
ditches. 



Progs and 
switclies. 



Trees near 
track. 



structures where the danger from fire is 
added to the liability of washouts. 

Culverts are frequently built too small to 
accommodate even ordinary high water; 
therefore if they are permitted to remain 
choked with weeds and driftwood they be- 
come doubly dangerous. 

Because good track cannot exist with bad 
drainage, prompt attention should be paid 
to the condition of the ditches, which 
should be opened as soon as possible and in 
such a way as to permit of the quickest 
passage of the water from the ballast to 
some regular water course. 

Frogs and switches should be rigidly in- 
spected and, although mistakes in their de- 
sign or construction cannot often be rem- 
edied after they are once in place, it should 
be ascertained that guard rails are properly 
located and braced; that the throw of the 
switches is correct; that their points are 
sufficiently protected by the curve in the 
main rail and that the frog points are in 
line with the main track. 

Trees are often left standing on or near 
the right-of-way in such a position as to 
endanger passing trains, if they should be 
blown over. These must be felled in short 
order, although their removal may be put 
off to some less busy time. In some states, 
railroads are permitted to condemn trees 
outside the right-of-way (if a price cannot 
be agreed upon with the owner), and it is 
important for trackmen to know of this 
wherever the right exists. A simple and 
sufficiently accurate way of determining 
whether or not a tree is at a safe distance 
from the track, if the base of the tree is 
neither much above or much below the 
level of the track, is as follows: Let one 
man hold a track-gage vertically, resting 
it on top of the rail nearest the tree. Let 
another njan place his eye close to the op- 



General Remarks. 3 

posite rail and sight over tlie upper end of 
the track-gage. If the sight line clears the 
top of the tree, the tree is at a safe dis- 
tance — otherwise, not. 

General It speaking, the only vegetation Encourag= 
which should be permitted on the right-of - '"^^ 8^"**- 
way of a railroad track is grass and this 
should be encouraged in every way, for it 
is of great help in preventing sliding in cuts 
and on other slopes and much improves 
the appearance of a line as seen from a 
passing train. 

Section foremen should be authorized Extra men. 
to employ a limited number of men to as- 
sist them in times of threatened danger from 
floods, landslides, etc. It is better to spend 
a few dollars at the right time than to have 
the whole traffic of a railroad stopped in- 
definitely for want of a little extra help. 
If the privilege is abused it can easily be 
taken away or the foreman replaced by a 
more judicious one. Snow storms, es- 
pecially, should be promptly dealt with, 
and as the maintenance-of-way department 
is expected to keep the switches and plat- 
forms clean, roadmasters and section fore- 
men should be prepared at all times to 
meet any storms with a sufficient force 
to perform their work in a satisfactory 
manner. 

The track should be completely walked Track 
over by the roadmaster at least three times, '"^p®*^*"®"- 
and better still four times, a year, in the 
company of each section-foreman, for the 
purpose of making a general comparison of 
progress and planning the work for the fu- 
ture. These walks should take place at 
the opening of spring, early in July, the 
middle of September and at the beginning 
of winter. Between times, each section 
should be attended to as occasion requires. 
The best waj' to inspect a piece of track is 
to do it on foot. 



4 The Roadmasters' Assistaxt. 

Reports. Although the accounts and reports which 
are required of roadmasters and section- 
foremen are not difficult to make out, they 
are apt to cause considerable trouble to 
the men and annoyance at the department 
headquarters. The only ^asy way is to 
have them ready when they are due and to 
have them right, since delaying the per- 
formance of a duty makes it harder to ful- 
fil and increases the likelihood of error. 
The section time-books should be made up 
every night after the quitting time, and, 
while the matter is still fresh in the mind, 
all of the charges to different kinds of work 
should be made. The tie, rail and material 
reports of the roadmaster should be kept 
in a form which will enable him to fill 
them up and send them in at the end of the 
month, without having to spend several 
days in the office at a time when he should 
be out on the road among his men. 
Use and The use of the section hand-cars by a 

abuse of roadmaster should be resorted to only on 
' rare occasions and under the most urgent 
necessity. Although for the roadmaster it 
is an extremely pleasant and convenient 
method of getting from place to place, it is 
expensive for the railroad company, and, 
what is worse, leads to lax habits on the part 
of the men. For ordinary touring a ve- 
locipede should be used. 

The hand-car should never be used ex- 
cept when in charge of the foreman him- 
self, or someone in whom he has confidence, 
and when on the track should be the object 
of care and watchfulness. Where the 
trains are frequent, on a crooked road, dur- 
ing a fog, or at night, the car should be pro- 
tected by a flag, and the fact that a hand- 
car has been struck b^^ an engine should 
be regarded as presumption of criminal 
carelessness on the part of the foreman. 
The cars should not be "taken off" on high- 



General Remarks. 5 

way crossings in such a way as to block 
them, but frequent places, formed of old 
rail, ties or earth, should be provided for 
the purpose. 

A hand-car should never be taken from Hand-car 
the house without the following equipment: e<i"«p= 
two red flags, one green flag, six torpedoes, *"®"*" 
a well-sharpened mattock, an oil can, 
monkey wrench, spike maul, track chisel 
and claw bar. Other tools will be found 
convenient, but v/ith those named, the track 
can be protected and almost any kind of 
small repairs can be made. 

It should always be remembered that comfort 
men cannot work without food. When °* "*"* 
they are kept out late at night in the cold 
or wet it puts them in good humor and gives 
them new strength, to supply them with 
sandwiches or bread and butter and hot 
coffee. For this purpose the work train ca- 
boose, as well as the wrecking car, should 
be provided with boilers for making coffee. 
The roadmaster or foreman who sees to the 
comfort of his men will, other things being 
equal, have more influence over them and 
get more out of them than the one who 
treats them with indifference. 

Eeliable men should never be dismissed Discipline. 
except for cause or to comply with a general 
order for reduction. The frequent dis- 
charge of employes for trivial reasons tends 
to breed dissatisfaction and uncertainty in 
the minds of the men who should be made 
to feel confident of keeping their positions 
during good behavior. On the other hand, 
a man who is discharged for a good and 
just cause should not be reinstated. Ad- 
monition should be tried with men whose 
work is at all satisfactory, before the final 
act of discharge; but, whatever course is fol 
lowed, it should be made clear to everyone 
that some notice will be taken of any care- 
less or wanton breaking of the rules. 



The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 

Knowledge It IS of the first importance that a road- 
of details, master should know his road and his men, 
and it is more important that he should 
know the bad places and unworthy men 
than to know the good ones. Good things 
do not require so much w^atching as bad 
ones. 
Emergency The roadmaster should know^ the exact 
material, location of all material under his charge; 
and this knowledge is absolutely necessary 
at times when it is important that a large 
amount of material of a certain kind shall 
be delivered at a certain point at the earli- 
est possible moment. Spare material, for 
the same reason, should be stored at con- 
venient points and so placed as to permit 
of its being loaded easily and rapidly on 
short notice. If the roadmaster is prudent, 
he will always have some timber, rails, a 
few switches and some frogs on hand for 
sudden emergencies, no matter how poor 
the railroad company may be. 
Intoxicants rj\^Q ^gg Qf intoxicants should be abso- 
forbidden. }^^^g|y prohibited during working hours. 
Men known to frequent saloons do not be- 
long on a railroad, and for many reasons 
should not be employed there. The ex- 
ample they set is bad, and it cannot be fore- 
told when someone in the humblest position 
may be required to perform work of im- 
mense importance, as for instance flagging 
a train which is in danger. At such times 
a man should be in the full possession of 
his faculties, and if a tippler, he cannot be 
relied upon. 
competi- A Spirit of Competition and emulation 
once aroused among the men will prove a 
valuable help, and for this purpose tours 
of inspection, at stated intervals, over all 
the sections, and shared in by all the fore- 
men, should be made. They should be 
asked to criticize each other's work freely, 
and discussions as to the best way of ac- 



tion. 



General Remarks. 7 

complishing various things should be en- 
couraged. This interchange of ideas will 
not only add greatly to the general stock 
of information, but it will let each man see 
how far his work is advanced in comparison 
with that of the others. 

At all times there should be held in line nen for 
for promotion a number of bright, active promotion, 
young men who may be called upon to act 
as substitutes or to take the places of men 
whom it is desired to discharge. They may 
be familiarized with the exercise of 
authority by employing them as extra fore- 
men during the summer, as track-walkers 
and upon detached service during the 
winter. The ability to enforce an order or 
inaugurate a reform will frequently depend 
upon this source, since men are often re- 
tained in their positions for the sole reason 
that there are none to supplant them who 
will certainly do better. It must also be 
remembered that frequent small promo- 
tions have a better effect than a single con- 
siderable one; therefore in making a change 
it is well to see if two or three cannot be 
benefited instead of simply the one who is 
directly interested. 

A section foreman's place is with his men, Attention 
whom he should not leave if it can be avoid- *<> 
ed. The roadmaster's place is everywhere. ''"®'"®*«' 
He should ride over his division continual- 
ly; on the rear end and on the locomotives 
of passenger trains, on way freights and on 
a velocipede hand-car; while occasional trips 
should be made at night to see that the 
switch lamps are burning properly and that 
the track-walkers are attending to their 
duties. No man should undertake the du- 
ties of a roadmaster who will not cheer- 
fully give himself up to the requirements 
of the work. He should be available at 
any hour of the day or night, and for this 
reason his whereabouts should always be 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

known either at the telegraph office or at 
his home, and any serious damage to the 
main track should have his immediate per- 
sonal attention In short, his habits, life 
and language should be an example to his 
men in order that he may consistently cor- 
rect any failure on their part. Inasmuch 
as he occupies one of the most responsible 
and onerous positions on the road, he 
should attempt to perform his duties with 
credit to himself or else earn his living in 
some other way. 



CHAPTER 11. 

Organization and Methods of Work. 

The number of men necessary to properly Number 
maintain a railroad is determined by sucli <>* "«"• 
varying conditions that it is impossible to 
lay down any general rule which is ap- 
plicable to every case. The amount and 
quality of the ballast, the condition and 
weight of the rail, the character and amount 
of the traffic, the climate; all these tend to 
affect the ease with which a piece of track 
may be kept up. On a well-ballasted, 
double-track railroad, equipped with good 
ties and heavy steel rails, having sections 
five miles long, five men and a foreman 
(exclusive of watchmen and track-walkers) 
for eight months beginning with April 1st, 
and three men and a foreman for the other 
four months of the year should be able to 
keep the roadbed and track in first-class 
shape. This estimate is intended to cover 
only the routine work of a section with, per- 
haps, a little grading for a new side-track 
occasionally added. On many roads even 
a less number of men than this are em- 
ployed on track work. The Michigan Cent- 
ral employs three men and a foreman in 
summer and two men and a foreman in 
winter on sections five miles long, both 
single and double track. Much of the work 
of the section gang, such as ditching, fenc- 
ing and clearing the right-of-way is the 
same on single and double track roads and 
the uncertaintv and increased number of 



10 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



the train movements over single track 
stretches more than compensates for the ad- 
ditional labor required on the actual track 
work on double-tracked sections. Oh the 
Detroit & Mackinac, onl}^ two men and a 
foreman are employed during the summer 
and one man and a foreman in winter on 
eight to ten-mile sections of single-track 
road. Most of the tamping is shovel-tamp- 
ing in sand and the traffic, of course, is 
light. 

The sections, except those embracing 
large yards, should be as nearly as possible 
of equal length in order that a comparison 
may be made of the work performed by the 
different gangs. On main lines, sections 
should not exceed five miles in length, while 
on branch lines they may be seven or eight 
miles long, but seldom more, because of the 
loss of time in going over them. 

Each foreman should make all ordinary 
repairs on his own section. The practice 
of transferring one gang to help in the reg- 
ular work on another section is not com- 
monly a good one, since each foreman 
should be held responsible for, and capable 
of performing, his own duties, to which end 
he should be encouraged in every way. If 
the amount of work to be done is too great 
for the regular force, its number should be 
increased, but any help or interference from 
other gangs is apt to arouse the resentment 
of an ambitious man or to encourage in a 
lazy man a certain shiftless feeling of satis- 
faction. 

During the working months, a floating 
gang in charge of some bright young man, 
who is on the list for promotion to a regular 
section, will be found of great help in cut- 
ting new ditches, sloping rough banks, 
building new fences, etc., etc. These gangs 
are easily moved from place to place, may 
have their own hand-cars and tools, and for 



Okganization and Methods of Work. 11 

such work as they can do are useful and 
far more economical than a work train. If 
necessary (and it is frequently advisable) 
the foreman of the section where these men 
happen to be at work, may be permitted to 
guarantee their board and deduct it from 
their wages on pay-day. 

The w^ork train, although absolute!} work 
necessary for some purposes, is in many trains. 
cases an expensive luxury. Since it has no 
rights beyond those given by special or- 
ders, it must keep out of the way of all 
regular trains and, if the road is a busy one, 
the work train is apt to become a loafing 
place for the men, because it must of neces- 
sity spend a large amount of time in run- 
ning from one point to another or in wait- 
ing for orders at some place where there is 
no work to be done. To secure good results 
the roadmaster must watch its movements 
closely and sufficient work to keep the 
hands employed should be laid out some 
time in advance and distributed over the 
division in such a way as to provide con- 
stant emplojmient for the men. 

The foreman of the work train should be 
bright, active and pushing, well acquainted 
with all the details of track work, intent 
upon keeping his train in motion and al- 
ways on the lookout for something to oc- 
cupy his men. The train should be pro- 
vided with tools of all kinds in order that, 
no matter what work the men may be called 
upon to perform, they will have something 
to do it with. In some cases, especially on 
long divisions, the men must sleep and eat 
on the train. It is a simple matter to have 
a man run the commissariat, charging an 
agreed price for each man per day. The 
railroad company can then deduct the cost 
of board from the wages of the men and 
can also make the contract profitable to the 
boarding boss by shipping his materials to 



The Roadmasters" Assista]s't. 

him free and by furnishing the sleeping, 
dining and cooking cars. 

Way freight trains if properly handled 
can assist the work train in many ways. 
The distribution of cross ties, small 
amounts of rail, building stone and other 
articles which need not delay the train long, 
may, with a little foresight, be thus accom- 
plished at comparatively slight cost. Such 
work as heavy ballasting or ditching in long 
cuts requires an extra train, but by the use 
of an unloading plow, the presence of la- 
borers on the train while the material is 
being handled and dumped may usually be 
dispensed with. Many miles of ballast may 
be delivered by way freight trains in a 
single season with no other force than the 
regular crews if the proper arrangements 
are made and carried out. Either dump 
cars or a plow must of course be used. If 
the plow is used, the rope, instead of be- 
ing loaded on the train, may be dragged 
ahead to the end of the dump and left be- 
side the track until the next string of load- 
ed cars arrive. 

A common method of concentrating labor 
is to bring together the men from a number 
of sections in order that a large amount of 
work may be accomplished in a short time. 
This plan is expensive but is applicable 
upon poor roads where the permission to 
emplo3^ extra men is not often granted. 

The routine work upon a railroad should 
be performed in a regular manner. Certain 
days, as well as certain seasons, should be 
set apart for certain kinds of work. On 
Monday morning the section should be care- 
fully inspected by the foreman for the pur- 
pose of remedying any defects which may 
have developed during Sunday, and as much 
as is necessary of Saturday afternoon 
should be devoted to cleaning up. At this 
time the scrap, which in the meantime 



Orgaxizatiox and Methods of Work. 13 

should have been thrown into small piles 
bj the track-walker, must be collected and 
taken to the tool-house, where the wrought 
and cast iron should be sorted and thrown 
into separate bins. Unsightly objects 
should be disposed of and the line left in 
a neat and orderly condition. 

There is always some work to be done Kainy 
around a section-house in the way of fitting ***^®' 
handles, sharpening tools, slight repairs to 
the hand-car or house itself, which may, 
and should, be performed on rainy days 
when the men are waiting for it to clear 
up. 

Watching track is an important feature Watch= 
of maintenance-of-way work, which is more "®"* 
often neglected from a false sense of econo- 
my than it is overdone. In a properly or- 
ganized department the slope watchmen 
should be furnished with the ordinary tools 
for tamping, renewing ties, ditching, etc., 
and should be expected to spend most of 
their time making repairs except in bad 
weather, when their attention should be di- 
rected to patrolling and looking for ob- 
structions. 

Track-walkers, however, should not be Track 
required to make any but the most inci- walkers, 
dental repairs, such as knocking in a spike, 
tightening bolts or some little thing which 
will not distract their attention or detain 
them long from their inspection. They 
should be required to look out for burning 
fences or fires which threaten, or appear 
likeh^ to threaten, any property on or near 
the right-of-way. They should be particu- 
larly on the lookout for broken rails, 
switches, frogs, etc. The position of track- 
walker is one of great responsibility and 
should be filled by a man of judgment, so- 
briety and experience in railroad work; one 
who is familiar with the book of rules, well 
acquainted with the time card, and able to 



The Roadmasters" Assistant. 



Fore men 

as! 

laborers. 



Division 
of labor. 



Winter 
work. 



immediately recognize a dangerous condi- 
tion of the track or roadbed. The track- 
walker is in fact the eye of the foreman. 
Many railroads do not employ track- walk- 
ers, and when this is so the section fore- 
man should patrol his section of track every 
morning on a hand-car. 

A good deal is to be said on both sides 
of the question, as to whether or not fore- 
men should themselves work with their 
gangs. In small gangs of three or four the 
foreman should be able to perform 
a considerable amount of actual labor in ad- 
dition to directing his men, but where there 
are eight or ten men to be kept busy it is 
doubtful if anything is gained by distract- 
ing his attention from their movements. 

Just as in the division of labor between 
the sections, so it is advisable to divide 
the labor of a gang into several equal parts. 
8ome men will always shirk unless there is 
a means of comparing their work with that 
of others who are not lazy. 

The residence of foremen will be largely 
determined by circumstances, but if pos- 
sible they should make their homes at sta- 
tions where there are night telegraph of- 
fices. Roadmasters should live at some 
place from which they can easily reach all 
points lying within their jurisdiction. 

The railroad year, in most sections of this 
country, may be divided into two parts, the 
first of which extends from early in Decem- 
ber until late in March. During this winter 
season little actual track work should be 
undertaken; some shimming, spiking and 
perhaps the renewal of switches and frogs 
where the ties are in good surface and do not 
require shifting, is about all that should be 
attempted and even these only for the pur- 
pose of keeping the track absolutely safe 
for the passage of trains. Many other use- 
ful things can be done, at odd times when 



Organizatiox and Methods of Wobk. 15 

the weather permits, such as ditching, re- winter 
pairing road crossings, fences and plat- "^^f^- 
forms, sloping banks, taking down loose 
rock, etc., which will greatl}^ facilitate the 
work on the section. While cold weather 
lasts, labor is cheap and plentiful and ad- 
vantage may be taken of this fact during 
moderate periods. The very last of the 
winter season is the best time to "renew 
rail." Since the ties must often be re- 
spaced in order that the rail may be prop- 
erly supported at the joints, the most ur- 
gent part of this re-spacing must be done 
as soon as the frost is out of the ballast 
and may be finished when the new ties are 
put in. 

The period from April to December summer 
should be devoted to the real work of the work 
section. Lining and surfacing, although of 
great importance, stand second to ditching, 
which should begin as soon as the frost is 
out of the ground. If this fact were better 
understood much valuable time would be 
saved, for usually any lining or surfacing of 
track which is done before the ballast is 
thoroughly drained must be done over again 
in a very short time, and when trackmen 
are required or permitted to "putter," that 
is, rush from one point to another, pick- 
ing up joints that are a little low, they will 
not have much time to do those things 
which tend most to preserve their track in 
good condition. There are only a few se- 
crets not generally known about track 
work, and one of them is not to allow the 
section gang to "putter." 

After the ditching has been completed Tie 
and the track made fairly smooth, the work renewing. 
of putting in ties should begin in earnest. 
For many reasons this part of the work 
should be pushed to a finish as early as pos- 
sible, for, if it is carried on in a desultory 
manner, cold weather frequently arrives 



16 



The Roadmastebs' Assistant. 



Cutting 
weeds. 



Organized 
effort. 



Thorough 
work. 



to find the work incompleted. No paying 
work can be done on track until the ties 
are in, and no good track can be secured 
unless ties are put in early in the season. 
The desirability of having all ties for the 
season's renewals on hand and distributed 
before the beginning of spring is therefore 
apparent. 

Weeds, shrubs and underbrush should be 
cut at some specified time, which time va- 
ries in different parts of the United States. 
The object is of course to kill the weeds 
while they are small and before they ripen. 
In many of the states, laws have been 
passed compelling the owners of land to 
cut the Canadian thistles before a certain 
time in the summer under penalty for neg- 
lect. The terms of this law, as it relates 
to their locality, should be known to 
every roadmaster and section foreman. 
After weed-cutting time, the force should 
be employed in the general work of 
the section, such as lining and surfacing, 
deepening water courses, laying drains, sod- 
ding banks and ballasting. About the mid- 
dle of September a second cutting of the 
weeds will be found necessary, and this 
should be followed by a careful alinement 
and surfacing of the track and a general 
preparation of the road for the winter. 

Too much emphasis cannot be placed up- 
on the necessity for organized effort in the 
maintenance-of-way department. There is 
a proper season for each different class of 
work and a regard for the old proverb 
which says "a place for everything and 
everything in its place," will secure as good 
results on a railroad as elsewhere. 

Thorough work is all important. There 
is a too common idea that a piece of track 
which looks as if it were good is good "to 
stay;" hurried tamping may make track ap- 
pear well when it is first put up, but a few 



Organization and Methods of Work. 17 

trains passing oyer it cause it to become 
as bad as before, while the men are l?:ept 
running from one low joint to another, 
losing time on the way, doing the same 
thing over and over again, when a little 
more effort in the first place would have 
resulted in a permanent job. 

Order and neatness are of the first im- Neatness, 
portance, not so much in themselves, as in 
what they indicate. Although a foreman 
may have a dirty car-house and a good 
track, it is more probable that ungathered 
scrap and other evidences of carelessness 
will be accompanied by loose bolts and bad- 
ly tamped ties. 

Keports should be required of all fires, Locomo- 
with a statement of the numbers of the lo- ^^^^ 
comotives which are believed to have ^p**"*^^* 
caused them. Since bad nettings are usually 
the cause, the locomotives which require re- 
pairs in that particular can be detected. 

One of the most destructive agencies to hoiiow 
railroad track are locomotive tires with *'*'®®- 
hollow treads. On most railroads these 
tires are turned down before they have been 
worn to a dangerous depth, but on some 
roads the motive power department does 
rot regard this fault as a particularly seri- 
ous one. To correct it the roadmaster 
should occasionally try the wheels of the lo- 
comotives by means of a pocket template 
and enter a protest whenever a wheel is 
found with a hollow tire deep enough to 
injure the frogs and switches. Journal- 
bearings which are worn so as to produce 
excessive side motion should also be report- 
ed whenever they can be detected. 

Trainmen are given to accounting for any cause of 
delay or damage to a train while it is in damage, 
their charge by assigning it to a cause be- 
yond their control; occasionally from a dis- 
inclination to take the trouble to find out 
the real cause and at other times to escape 



18 The Roadmastees' Assistant, 

blame. The track force is particularly li 
able to these charges, and for this reason 
if for no other the roadmaster should re- 
quire, and the section-foreman should fur- 
nish, a short but exact account of any un- 
usual occurrence to a train which might in 
any way be charged to track. 
Caution Any track which is not considered safe 

signs. f^j, trains running at full speed should be 
protected by caution signs or by a slow or- 
der posted on the bulletin board at division 
headquarters; but since engine men are 
known at times not to regard these indi- 
cations and orders as carefully as they 
should, caution signs and slow orders 
should be resorted to as little as possible. 
When they are used any neglect of them 
should be reported at once. 



CHAPTER III. 

Fences, Highway Crossings and Platforms. 

A well-fenced right-of-way although ex- Fences 
pensive to construct is a good investment desirable, 
for a railroad. Roads not so protected 
usually have large claims for damages to 
stock to adjust and the constant drain on 
the treasury from this cause is demoral- 
izing alike to the railroad and to the own- 
ers of stock along the right-of-way. Good 
wooden fences will last seven or eight years 
without much attention beyond the occa- 
sional straightening of a post or the nail- 
ing up of a board. If built of timber par- 
ticularly selected for its lasting qualities, 
they will last even much longer than that. 

As a substitute for fences, hedges are be- Hedges, 
ing experimented with on a number of 
roads in different parts of the country. 
Privet, Japanese quince, osage orange and 
other hardy plants have been tried with 
good success. It is well worth the slight 
additional expense to plant several different 
varieties in order to determine which of 
them is best suited to the soil and climate 
of the locality in which it is to be used. 
The Pennsylvania has planted many miles 
of osage orange hedges along its lines. 
Two rows of plants are placed close togeth- 
er in the ground, one row standing vertical 
and the other row inclined towards the first 
so that the stalks are interlaced. With the 
sharp thorns with which the stalks are cov- 
ered, the whole forms an inpenetrable bar- 



20 The Roadmastees' Assistant. 

rier to any kind of live stock. A hedge 
when properly trimmed adds greatly to the 
appearance of the right-of-way, and in the 
winter it forms an effective protection 
against drifting snow. The greatest menace 

Fire. to both wooden fences and hedges is fire, and 

on this account the ground around and un- 
der them should be kept free from under- 
growth and long grass. A simple means of 
doing this is to plow a furrow close to the 
fence on each side of it and turn the sod 
away from the fence. 

Posts and The best timber for posts is cedar, which 

stretchers, (jg^ays slowly and holds the nails and 
staples well. Chestnut and white oak are 
also good, but decay more rapidly. Almost 
any wood which will make good crossties 
is suitable for fence posts, but whatever 
timber is used, should always be stripped 
of its bark before being planted. For the 
stretchers, pine or hemlock boards, 1 in. x 
6 in., were almost universally used until up 
to a few years ago. At the present time, 
steel wire has practically taken the place 
of lumber. For ordinary right-of-way fence, 
the most suitable form has the wires 

fences. "woven" or laced in rectangular or triangu- 
lar shapes, or else stretchers of twisted 
metal, ribbon or rope are used. There are 
numerous kinds on the market, varying lit- 
tle in price. Several forms are illustrated 
here, all of which are of the kind known as 
"woven;" a form of fence which is rapidly 
increasing in use, since it will turn all kinds 
of stock from the largest to the smallest 
without injury to them or to the fence. 

Barbed The old-fashioned barbed wire fence is 

still in more general use than any or all of 
the newer forms of woven wire or slat 
fences. The form of fence shown in Fig. 7 
gives ample protection to the right-of-way 
and is not dangerous to stock. The 6-in. 
board at the top attracts the attention of 



wire 
fences. 



Fences, Highway Crossings and Platforms. 



21 




Fig. 1 — Page Woven-Wire Fence. 




v?-:j5ferwjc;^*tti!ij!!5^ r?^"* 



Fig. 2 — Ellwood Woven-Wire Fence. 




Fig. 3 — Woven-Wire Fence Made by The International 
Fence & Fireprooflng Co. 



The Roadmastebs' Assistant. 




Fig. 4 — McMullen Woven-Wire Fence. 



58INC1L 




Fig. 5 — Woven-Wire Fence, American Steel & Wire Co. 




Fig. 6 — Woven-Wire Station Fence, American Steel & 



Fences, Highway Crossings and Platforms. 

stock not accustomed to barbed wire fences 
and prevents them from getting entangled 
in the wires. For some unexplained rea- 
son, barbed wire seems more rust-proof 
than most grades of woven wire which 



23 




Fig. 7 — Barbed-Wire Fence with Pine Stretchers and 
Farm Gate. 

break down rapidly, particularly in locali- 
ties where the atmosphere is slightly tinged 
with salt. 

For station grounds and for the right-of- 
way through towns, the fence shown in Fig. 
6 is both sightly and efficient. 

A simple and easily made farm gate Farm 
which needs for its construction nothing gate, 
but a saw, hammer, nails and boards is 
shown in Fig. 7. It is best adapted for 
openings wliich are seldom used and a chain 
and padlock make the best possible fasten- 
ing. For busy crossings the form shown in 
Fig. 8 is frequently used although it is 
more expensive. 




Fig. 8 — Farm Gate, American Steel & Wire Co. 



24 

Hetal 
posts. 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 

Steel or iron posts are now being used 
extensively instead of wooden posts even 
though they cost much more. They are 
strong and durable and cost less in the long 
run than wooden posts which must fre- 
quently be straightened up and renewed. 




Fig. 10— The Climax Post. 



Fences, Highway Crossings and Platforms. 

Several forms are shown in Figs. 9 to 12. ^^^^^ 
The post shown in Fig. 9 is made of lM:-in. ^°^ *' 
T-iron, twisted at the ground line and pro- 
vided with blades which are driven into 
the ground and serve to brace the post in a 
direction at right angles to the line of the 



25 




fence. The corner post shown in Fig. 10 is 
made of light angle iron rising from a sub- 
stantial burned clay base buried in the 
ground. It is braced with similar angles 
resting on firm foundations. Figs. 11 and 
12 are formed from a thin sheet of steel. 
Of the two posts shown in Fig. 11, the one 



26 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



on the left is the ordinary form, while the 
other one is used at corners or gates and is 
substantially braced. 



Post 
distances. 



Fence 
gang. 



Fig. 12 — The Avery Steel Fence Post. 

When boards are used for stretchers the 
posts should be placed 8 ft. apart, but with 
wire fence this space may be safely in- 
creased to 12 ft; the latter distance, how- 
ever, should not be exceeded. The end 
posts of each break in a wire fence, whether 
road-crossing or gate, should be braced as 
shov/n in Figs. 1 and 7, to enable them to 
withstand the pull of the wire. 

Ordinary repairs to fences may be made 
by the regular gang of section men, but for 
extended improvements, additions, or gener- 
al repairs, it will be found that much cheap- 
er and better fences can be built if a special 
fence gang is employed. This gang should 



Fences. Highway Crossings and Platforms. 

have its own tools and hand-car and should Pence 
consist of from four to six men and a fore- ^*"^* 
man. The necessary tackle for stretching 
wire fences is shown in Figs. 13, 14 and 15. 




Fig. 13 — Fence Stretcher, American Steel & Wire Co. 




Fig. 14— Haven's "Come-Along.' 




Fig. 15 — Method of Stretching Wire Fence. 



28 The Roadm asters' Assistant. 

cattie= Open cattle-guards, with the rails laid 

guards. directlj upon the stringers, are no longer 
used. They are extremely dangerous to 
trains as in case of a derailment they will 
surely cause a wreck. Neither are cattle- 
guards desirable with the ties laid upon 
stringers and an open space underneath, for 
cattle are frequently caught in them and 
are killed, sometimes wrecking a train. 

Surface cattle-guards are now allowed by 
law and some one of the recognized forms 
should be used. The particular kind de- 
cided upon should not be easily damaged 
by dragging brake-beams, etc., should have 
interchangeable parts and should be suscep- 




Fig. 16 — Bush Cattle-Guard. 



Fig. 17 — Kalamazoo Cattle-Guard. 



Fences, Highway Crossings and Platforms. 

tible of easy and quick repairs. Several 
different forms are illustrated in Figs. 16 to 
19 inclusive. 



2i> 




Fig. 18 — National Surface Cattle-Guard. 




Fig. 19 — Men-ill-Stevens' Cattle-Guard, 

Road-crossings, as usually built, are most Highway 
conveniently maintained under ordinary crossings, 
circumstances when formed of a frame built 
of 4-in. (or 5-in., depending on the height 
of the rail) x 10-in., yellow pine (never 
white oak, which warps badly), chamfered 
on the inside and filled level with the top 
with broken stone, furnace slag, or a simi- 
lar material. On the outside of the track, 
planks should be laid parallel with and 
close to the rails, and sloped away from the 
track to meet the paving or dirt of the road. 
Fig. 20 shows such a road-crossing. 




Fig. 20 — Open Highway Crossing. 



30 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Highway 
<:rossings. 



In cities, or at any highway crossing 
where the teaming is heavy, a piece of old 
rail placed between the main rail and the 
timber, in such manner as is illustrated in 
Fig. 21, will add greatly to the life of the 




Laying 
planks. 



Pig. 21 — Old-Rail Protection for Highway Crossing. 

crossing-plank by protecting it from the 
grinding of ice and dirt during the passage 
of trains, while it also facilitates the clean- 
ing of the flangeway. 

In laying timber at highway crossings, 
platforms, or at any other place where it is 
exposed to the wet, it should always be 
placed as in Fig. 22 A so that the dip of the 

A B 



grain tends to shed the water and not as in 
Fig. 22 B, in which position it is evident 
that water would be absorbed and held for 
some time. 

The tendency of some timbers to "check" 
may be overcome to a considerable extent 
by driving into the end of a plank, a thin 
strip of iron or steel bent in the shape 
shown in Fig. 23. 



Drainage 
of cross= 
ings. 



Fig. 23 — Method of Preventing Checlfing of Planks. 

The drainage of highway crossings is of 
especial importance and should be done by 
running small tile or broken stone drains 
under the ends of the ties, communicating 
with the nearest waterway. Great care 
Diust be exercised in maintaining highway 



Fences, Highway Crossings and Platforms. 31 

crossings, because an injury caused to a 
horse or vehicle is soon heard from in the 
shape of a demand for damages. 

Station platforms may be made of oak station 
plank, cement, concrete or vitrified brick, platforms. 
Cement paving has come into general use 
for platforms within the last few years. It 
gives a smooth, even surface, is easily kept 
clean and has good wearing qualities. 
Platforms at unimportant stations are easi- 
ly constructed and prove quite satisfactory 
when built of coarse broken stone for a 
foundation, dressed and surfaced with 
crusher dust, clean gravel or cinders from 
locomotives. The last is somewhat dirty 
but otherwise very good for the purpose. 
The foundation should be well drained and 
if the platform is maintained with reason- 
able care it will last a long time at a nomi- 
nal cost for repairs. 

Driving roads beside unloading tracks Roads at 
may be easily constructed after the old- stations, 
fashioned ^^corduroy'^ plan, by the use of 
cross ties, the end sills and bolsters of cars 
and other material of a like character, 
which through partial decay or for some 
other reason is no longer suited for its orig- 
inal purpose. A cobble stone pavement 
laid on 6-in. sand, properly drained, is still 
better and is one of the best of the cheap 
pavements so far as cost and permanency 
are concerned. The conditions surrounding 
places of this kind are usually so bad that 
almost anything which could be done 
would improve matters. There is an oppor- 
tunity in many localities for effecting a 
change which will prove a great benefit to 
the patrons of the railroad and indirectly 
to the railroad itself. 

A well-made macadam road is as satis- nacadam 
factory as almost any paving, provided it is roads, 
kept up with some care. Macadam roads 
are best made by preparing a sub-grade, 



32 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

riacadam cFowned in the center and on that laying^ 
roads. large stones turned up on edge. The thick- 
ness of this bottom layer depends upon the 
amount of traffic which the road is to 
carry and varies from 8-in. for heavy traf- 
fic to 4-in. for light traffic. It is covered 
with a layer of broken stone (about an inch 
in its largest dimension) which is well 
packed with a heavy road roller. Over this 
is laid a thickness of crusher screenings or 
clean gravel, if screenings cannot be had. 
The road is thus firmly packed by heavy 
and continued rolling. 

Such a road is nearly impervious to 
water which owing to the crowned surface 
flows quickly to the sides. Sufficient sur- 
face ditching must be provided to carry ofT 
the water because the drainage is of the 
utmost importance. Properly drained, a 
macadam road can be easily maintained 
under a heavy travel. Improperly drained, 
it cannot be kept up without considerable 
expense under even slight use, for the frost 
alone will destrov it in time. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Miscellaneous Fixtubes and Station Grounds. 

In the location of all buildings, signals, clearance. 
high platforms, etc., nothing should be 
placed nearer the main track than 5 ft. 
from the rail. iVlthough a less distance 
will clear upon straight track, 5 ft. leaves 
little to spare at the top of a car when the 
outer rail is elevated 6-in. 

The section-house should be located in section-^ 
such a way that the car may be got out at house, 
any time without the likelihood of being 
hemmed in by standing cars. It should 
have work-benches at the sides, with racks 
at the end and in the ceiling for storing 
tools. A vise, a draw-knife for shaping 
handles, a carpenter's cross-cut saw, a two- 
man saw for platform and highway cross- 
ing planks, one or two coarse flies, a trian- 
gular file, a brace and bits and a grindstone 
are the tools which, besides the ordinary 
track tools, are essential in every section- 
house, although others will be needed in 
special cases. 

The house should be not less than 12 ft. 
square and may well be 16 ft. square since 
it costs but little more and is then quite 
large enough for several men to work in 
while the hand-car and push-car are 
housed. The appearance of the house (Fig. 
24) should be neat but quite plain, while 
there should be windows at the sides and 
at the end opposite the door. The door 



34 



The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 



should be made in two pieces and should 
slide into the front wall. 




m 



Pig. 24 — Section-House. 



Bumping 
posts. 



Although bumping posts are not strictly 
a part of the track, roadbed or buildings, 
trackmen will often be required to furnish 
some means of stopping cars at the end of 
a track. For ordinary purposes, where 
nothing but the wild car itself will be dam- 
aged, if it runs beyond the end of the track 
a few feet, the methods shown in Figs. 25 
and 26 will do quite well. A better scheme 



Fig. 25 — Curved Rail Bumper. 




Clamped Bumper. 



is to build up a mound of earth at the end 
of the track. This has been successfully 
used on the Illinois Central. The bumpers 
shown in Figs. 27 and 28 are effective when 
made of heavy timbers with sufficiently 
strong tie-rods. The Ellis bumping post 
rests on masonry and the blow is changed 
from a horizontal force to a vertical force, 
the shock being largely absorbed by the 
earth instead of by the apparatus itself. 



Fixtures and Station Grounds. 35 




TTTT 

SIDE ELEVATION SECTION AT CD. 

Fig. 27 — Timber Bumper with Rods. 



]Eg[. 





SIDE ELEVATION 
Fig. 28^Braced Spring Bumper. 




Fig. 29 — Ellis Bumping Post. 



3G 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 




Fig. 30 — Gibraltar Bumping Post. 




Fig. 31 — Gibraltar Bumping Post with Spring Buffer. 




Fig. 32— The "Solid" Cast-Steel Bumping Post. 



Fixtures and Station Grounds. 

The mail bag crane, Fig. 33, is simple in ^*" 
construction, and is typical of the usual *^""*®' 
method. In the upper left hand corner is 
shown a gage for placing the arrangement, 
giving the distance of the upper hook above 




Fig. 33 — Mail Crane. 



the rail (10 ft.) and its distance from the cen- 
ter of the track. The Post Office Department 
furnishes plans of acceptable mail-cranes, 
and this is probably the best source of in- 
formation. 

Highway crossing signs, whistle signs, 
mile posts and other notices put up to at- 
tract the attention of the public or employes 
of the railroad company, should be conven- 
tional in form, that is, of a commonly known 
pattern, and all signs for a certain purpose 
should be alike in size, shape, color and in 
position with regard to the railroad track. 



Track 
signs. 



38 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Grade 

crossing 

sign. 



The sign indicating an approach to a 
grade crossing with another railroad is only 
needed when there is no interlocking plant. 
Its best form is like Fig. 34, which has arms 
4 ft. long by 6 in. wide with 4-in. letters. 
The post should be 10 ft. long above the 
ground and 6 or 8 in. square. 




Fig. 34 — Railroad Crossing Sign, 



Highway 
crossing 
sign. 



The "highway crossing-' sign (Fig. 35,) is 
a conventional one which has boards about 
5 ft. long by 6 in. wide with 4-in. letters. 
The post should be not less than 10 ft. long 
above the ground with an end section of 
about 8 in. by 8 in. but tapered in the man- 
ner shown between the points C and D. 
Occasionally it will be found convenient to 
provide both sides of the post with a sign, 
in which case the appearance would be as in 
the side elevation, where the dotted lines 



Fixtures and Station Gkounds. 



39 



represent the second sign. In many states, 
however, the form and lettering of these 
signs is prescribed by law. 




it 



Pig. 35 — Highway Crossing Sign. 



BRIDGE 
338 


1 

°0J 


STOP 




SLOW 




wx 




/ 


^6X6" 


















YARD 
LIMIT 




1 CAUtlON 

DONOTWALX 
[on TH^TRACK 




w:si 



Fig. 36 — Various Signs. 



In Fig. 36 are illustrated various cast-iron various 
signs of the same pattern but different let- *'^^' 
ters, which may be either raised or not. 
The base is an iron plate, \ in. thick, with 
a border \ in. thick and \ in. wide, and it 



40 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Metal 
signs.' ^ 



is mounted on a wooden post, 6 in. by 6 in., 
5 ft. above ground. Metal posts suit- 
able for this purpose are shown in Figs. 37 
to 40. Of those signs which do not explain 
themselves, "W X" means "whistle for road 
crossing"; "W S" meanrs "whistle for sta- 
tion." 

Metal posts and signs are increasing in 
use since they are not subject to decay and 
are not easilv destroved bv malicious tres- 





FiG. 37— Mile Post, Bond Steel Post Co. 



Monu= passers. The metal monument shown in 

ments. pjg ^Q |g intended for marking boundary 

lines or the intersection of the railroad with 

town, county or state lines. These intersec- 



Fixtures and Station Grounds. 41 




Fig. 38 — Sections of Bond Steel Posts. 




Fig. 39 — Railroad Crossing Sign. 
Bond Steel Post Co. 



tions should always be permanently marked 
and also the corners made by changes in the 
width of the right-of-way. 



42 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Gros:^ 



Fig. 40 — Monument. 
Bond Steel Post Co. 



<t> 



Jc 



Fig. 41 — Ordinary Mile Post. 



Mile The "mile post," Fig. 41, is the well-known 

posts. form, made of a piece of 8-in. by 8-in. tim- 
ber, 8 ft. long, 3 ft. of which should be in the 



Fixtures and Station Grounds. id 

ground. It should be placed with an edge MUe 
toward the track, by which means the dis- p***®- 
tance to each terminal may be seen at the 
same time. Wherever possible all of the 
mile posts should be on the same side of the 
track. 

On some railroads the sign-posts are fin- 
ished by a heap of round stones, a little 
smaller in size than a man's fist. Some- 
times a heap is conical, as in Fig. 35, and 
sometimes it is hemispherical in form. 
This heap is usually whitewashed, and is for 
the purpose of adding to the appearance of 
the post and to prevent the growth of vege- 
tation, which exposes the post to damage by 
fire. Though improving the appearance of 
the right-of-way, it is a somewhat expensive 
plan and the benefits hardly justify the 
expense. 

The most permanent letters and figures sign 
for wooden boards or posts are made of letters. 
very thin cast-iron and they are probably 
cheaper in the end than letters or figures 
which must be renewed by a regular paint- 
er. Next to them in permanency come those 
of a good quality of black graphite paint, 
applied with a brush. This paint should 
always be used for the black on woodwork. 

The fences at road-crossings should be white= 
whitewashed at least once a year, since '^****- 
a whitewashed fence may be seen at a con- 
siderable distance at night and it is import- 
ant that enginemen shall know when they 
reach a highway. Salt used in whitewash 
causes it to flake off rapidly and should, 
therefore, never be used under any circum- 
stances. 

The white paint used on switch targets, Paint, 
signal blades, etc., should be the best white 
lead. The red paint intended for the same 
purposes should be real English vermilion, 
while' both white and red paints should be 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

mixed in boiled linseed oil. Any odor of 
kerosene or gasoline in an oil paint, means 
that it lias been adulterated. 

For the iron work of water cranes, switch 
stands and sign posts, good quality black 
asphaltum varnish is the best. 

Fig. 42 is a "bridge-warning." The hang- 
ing ropes are each f in. in diameter, served 
with twine, not knotted at their lower ends 
and attached to the crane by J-in. round 
rods. 



ffejp. /^ 


4X8X136'\ 


















i 

•* 

J 


„ „ U f-9'0"-*l 


^-8X8 1 


A 




1 

= 1 











Fig. 42 — Bridge Warning. 



Highway crossings at grade can be pro- 
tected either by having watchmen stationed 
with a flag at such places or with some form 
of crossing alarm bell or crossing gates. 
Crossing alarm bells are actuated either 
with a "track instrument" or with relays 
in a track circuit. The former method has 



Fixtures A^'D Station Grounds. 45 

almost entirely gone out of use and the 
track circuit is now the only method used, 
at least in all new installations. A portion 
of both rails of the track forms a part of the 
bell circuit and when a train passes over 
these insulated rails, the circuit is closed 
and the crossing bell rings. The crossing 
bell is generally regarded as suitable only 
for rural and suburban crossings. 

The highway crossing gate, Fig. 43, is crossing 
usually applied to busy grade crossings. In ^"*®- 
its original form the gates were operated 
by means of chains or wires worked from a 
crank located on one of the posts; but in 
Fig. 43 compressed air is the motive power. 
With this arrangement one man is often 
able to handle the gates at several adjacent 
crossings, since the pump and valves are 
usually placed in an elevated cabin from 
which a clear view for some distance may 
be obtained. This machine has one disad- 
vantage and that is that moisture in the air 
is likely to be condensed in the pipes on a 
cold night and to freeze, as a result of which 
the gates are put out of service. This is a 
trouble to be anticipated and looked out for. 

In Fig. 43, P is the air pump, T - T', the 
valves which, by their position, select the 
gates to be moved and whether they shall 
be moved up or down. A - A'' are the air- 
pipes, D - D' are flexible diaphragms con- 
tained in the air chambers; these dia- 
phragms rest against the plungers K - W 
which connect with the cranks K - K' and in 
turn transmit the motion of K-R' to the 
sprockets S - S' and the chain - C. Tlie 
gates are directly operated by the system 
of small cranks and levers which lie im- 
mediately above S - S'. The weights W - W 
are for the purpose of counterbalancing the 
gates G - G. In the illustration the gates 
are down, and if it is desired to raise them, 
T - T' are put in that position which will 



46 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Crossing 
gate. 




Fixtures and Station Grounds. 47 

cause the compressed air to enter A and will 
open A' to the outside air. The pump is 
then worked. D (of the post on the right) 
is pressed toward R, moving R and at the 
same time K, S, G and C. But C and C 
are continuous, and any movement of this 
chain tends simultaneously either to raise 
or lower both gates, depending only upon 
the direction in which it moves. In other 
words, when the gates on the right are to be 
raised, the diaphragm on the right acts for 
both gates, and when they are to be low- 
ered the reverse action takes place. 

Where a street is narrow, one gate on 
each side of the track is enough, but fre- 
quently two on each side of the track are re- 
quired while a means of still further extend- 
ing the reach is to place the posts on the 
curb line and use small sidewalk arms in 
addition. These arms are shown broken in 
Fig. 48. 

It is not often that too much attention is station 
given to making American railroads fin- grounds, 
ished in appearance; on the contrary it is a 
matter which seems to be regarded, except 
in a few cases, as of little or no importance. 
Roadmasters, supervisors and section-fore- 
men should do all in their power to remedy 
this condition of affairs. The things which 
go to make up an attractive and neat sta- 
tion and grounds cost but little in time and 
money. There is no real excuse for unsightly 
scrap piles, dilapidated fences, muddy roads 
and dirty platforms around stations. The 
work of one man for a week in the year will 
usually maintain the fences; some engine 
cinders or field stones will fix the roads; a 
few trees at the borders of the company's 
land; a little grass plot near the station and 
some vines at the corners of the buildings 
will cause the place to look neat and at- 
tractive instead of dirty and disreputable. 
The trees and vines will cost only the labor 



48 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

of transplanting them from the nearest 
woods, while suitable turf can be secured 
along the right-of-way or from almost any 
pasture. 



CHAPTER V. 

Water Supply.* 

The question of water supply is one 
which does not naturally have a bearing 
upon maintenance-of-way work, but it is a 
question which will often be forced upon 
the roadmaster by circumstances, and a few 
suggestions here may prove of value. 

Given a sufficient quantity at each of sev- selection 
eral available sources, the only question of <>* source, 
importance is as to the quality of the water. 
It must not (if it can possibly be avoided) 
carry much free lime, and it should not be 
muddy. The first condition is most apt to 
be found in springs and the last in streams, 
but the lime is a serious fault, while the 
mud may be much reduced in quantity by 
allowing the water to settle before finally 
delivering it to the locomotives. There are 
many other impurities which render water 
undesirable, and for that reason it is best 
to have water subjected to a chemical test 
before finally arranging to use it, but the 
two objections already noted, lime and mud, 
are the most common. 

To detect an excess of lime in water it is Testing 
only necessary to dissolve a piece of white water. 
soap the size of a pea in a tablespoonful of 
freshly fallen rain water. When this prep- 
aration is put in a glass of water to be 
tested, it will cloud immediately if there is 
much lime in the water. By using the same 



* Many of these notes were suggested by "The Elements 
of Railroading," by Charles Paine, Published by The 
Railroad Gazette. 



50 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

quantity of soap water in several glasses, 
each holding the same amount of water to 
be tested, a comparison of different sources 
may easily be made, for if they contain dif- 
ferent quantities of lime those which con- 
tain the most lime will appear the most 
clouded. 
Treating Modern methods of treating water chem- 
water. ically are based on a scientific study of the 
impurities and the prescription of certain 
reagents in definite quantities to precipi- 
tate all of the foreign matter either in the 
form of mud in the settling tanks or in the 
form of a flaky paste in the boiler where it 
can be washed out without forming scale. 
Apparatus has been designed which auto- 
matically weighs and treats the water be- 
fore it goes to the supply tanks and sev- 
eral systems on this order are in successful 
operation. Among these are the Kennicott, 
Industrial Water Co.'s, Tweeddale, Oonti- 
nental-Jewell and American Water Soften- 
er Co.'s systems. The cost is so low that 
almost any water which was previously "en- 
dured" can now be "cured" at a compara- 
tively slight expense. 
Cost of If the samples of water are equally free 

plant. from impurities there still remains the ques- 
tion of cost. If the water comes from a 
point 30 ft. or more above the track and is 
not more than half a mile away (and some- 
times even farther) then a gravity sup- 
ply will almost always be found on investi- 
gation to be the cheapest and easiest to 
maintain. 
Wind- Where locomotives take water only at 

mills. jQjjg intervals, a wind-mill may sometimes 
be used economically and satisfactorily, but 
they are often out of service for two or 
three days at a time for lack of wind. Un- 
less there is a very large supply reservoir 
or but three or four engines a week are to 
be expected, they cannot be relied upon. 



Water Supply. 51 

A hydraulic ram will, where economy of Hydraulic 
water is not an object, automatically raise '*"' 
considerable quantities with practically no 
attention. 

In point of convenience and the amount Qas 
of attention necessary, a gas or gasoline en- engines. 
gine pump comes next to a hydraulic ram. 
They are automatically stopped by the fill- 
ing of the tank and are less costly in opera- 
tion than a steam pump which needs an at- 
tendant for at least part of the time. 
Fairbanks, Morse & Co. and the Otto Gas 
Engine Works have developed the applica- 
tion of gas engines to this work to a high 
state of mechanical efficiency and are in- 
stalling complete outfits to supply any re- 
quired amount of water. They require only 
a small amount of fuel and little or no at- 
tention after they are once started. What- 
ever pump is used, it should be a good one 
and of comparatively large capacity for the 
work to be performed. 

The storage reservoir must be near the storage 
track with its bottom at least 25 ft. above 'ese'^®'*"- 
the rails. The pipe connecting it with the 
water cranes should be of not less than 8 in. 
inside diameter. Occasionally it will be 
found that the storage tank may consist of 
a paved earthen reservoir located some- 
where near the right-of-way, in which case 
it should be covered with a conical or pyra- 
midal roof, to protect the water from leaves, 
sticks, etc. 

Usually, however, a tank mounted on Fro8t= 
posts is used. This should be made frost- p™®* 
proof by adding an enclosed air space about **"^®* 
6 in. deep to the top and bottom of the tank. 
If a peaked roof is used it forms the neces- 
sary air space on top. As an added pre- 
caution during very cold weather, frequent 
pumping of even small quantities of water 
should be resorted to to prevent the tank 
and connecting pipes from freezing. 



52 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

Type of The prevailing form of tank is shown in 

"" • Fig. 44. Cypress is the timber most used. 
Recently, tanks have been built entirely of 
steel similar to the one shown in Fig. 45, 
which is made by the Chicago Bridge & 
Iron Works. Reinforced concrete has also 
been proposed as a good material for this 
purpose. 




Fig. 44 — Frost-Proof Wooden Water Tank. 



Res ervoir The storage reservoir, of whatever kind, 
capacity.: gj^Q^]^ contain not less than 25,000 gallons, 
which would be held by a tub 16 ft. in di- 
ameter by about 16 ft. high, the common 
size. This is sufficient to fill the tanks of 
from four to six locomotives. 



Water Supply. 



53 




Fig. 45 — Steel Water Tank. 
Chicago Bridge & Iron Works. 



Pipe which is too small in diameter is size of 
frequently used for connecting the source p'p®* 
with the storage tank. Although the fac- 
tory cost of 3-in. pipe is twice as great as 
that of 2-in. pipe, the cost of- fitting and 
burying them is practically the same, while 
the capacity of the 3-in. pipe is twice as 
great as that of the 2-in. pipe. At the same 
time the frictional loss, "choking,^' is much 
less in the 3-in. pipe than in the 2-in. This 
means that on long lines it will take a much 
more powerful pump to force the water 
through a 2-in. than through a 3-in. pipe. care in 

There is no thumb-rule for arriving at designing, 
the correct dimensions of the pump and pipe 
line which are best for any given use. 
They depend upon the amount of water 



54 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 



Care in wMch must be delivered in a given time, the 
designing, height to whicli it must be pumped, and the 
length of the pipe line. It may sometimes 
be cheaper to put in a comparatively large 
pump and a comparatively small pipe line, 
but such a case would be very rare, and it 
is well to stick to the idea of using large 
pipe; it is also well to remember that sharp 
corners in the line are a considerable ob- 
struction. 








ysv 




.^: 


^ 


^ ^0 


,'-i 


^ 




^ n -'F- 


1 


1 ^ 


y 




^.^ 


i V_3iL Mil-m. 


''^: 


WW' 


Si 


'^■;:^j: m '■ :-nj!m^ r> 



Fig. 46— Sheffield Water Crane. 
Fairbanks. Morse & Co. 



When located at a station, the tank 
should be placed at some distance from the 
tracks and where it will not have to be 
moved because of changes. Where the 
tank stands beside a single-track road a 



Water Supply. 



55 



spout may be attached to it, as in Fig. 41, Water 
but on double track lines, or where the tank cranes, 
is removed from the line, a separate water 
crane must be provided, in which case the 
spout is omitted. 

In the choice of a water crane there is a 
considerable opportunity for selection and 




Fig. 47 — Poage Water Crane. 
American Valve & Meter Co. 



the points to be considered are size and gen- 
eral arrangement. The size is easily de- 
termined. It should deliver a stream of 



IS 



The Roadmasters' Assistats^t. 



Track 
tank. 




Water Supply. 67 

water not less than 8 in. in diameter, which water 
may even be increased to 10 in. and the diam- c'an^s- 
eter of the orifice should be continued all 
the way to the tank. Smaller cranes are built 
but they deliver water so slowly as to cause 
annoying delays. The general arrangement 
of the crane is usually best determined by 
the reputation of its maker, but one thing 
must be borne in mind: the valve must be 
nicely graduated, for if it is not, when shut- 
ting off the water, the pipe line is apt to be 
burst by a rise in pressure due to a too rapid 
stopping of the flow. 

The ease of control is closely allied to 
this. Usually it is best to have the valves 
operated from the end of the crane, as in 
Figs. 46 and 47, which are of standard 
makes, so that the fireman may start and 
stop the water and watch his tank fill with- 
out getting down from the tender. 

The pit should be about 6 ft. deep with crane pit. 
stone or brick walls and a cover which con- 
tains an air space of 4 in. or 5 in. is the 
best method of preventing the penetration 
of frost. There should also be a drain un- 
der the end of the crane to carry off the 
drippings, and this drain should be easily 
opened in order to be able to free it of ice 
in winter. 

Many railroads with fast trains have Track 
equipped their high-speed tracks with *^"*^' 
troughs, by means of which and by scoops 
that are attached under the tenders of lo- 
comotives, the fast trains are not required 
to stop or even slow down very much while 
taking water. Fig. 48 is from a drawing of 
the track tank used by the Michigan Cent- 
ral, and does not differ much from those 
used on other lines. The trough is made 
from a series of plates curved in the form 
of a flat U. It is fed at intervals throughout 
its length from a frost-proof tank located 
somewhere near the track, through the 3-in. 



58 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

pipe. This pipe also serves to supply steam 
to the trough in winter to prevent ice from 
forming. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Drainage. 

Since the greatest enemy of the track is Time for 
water, good drainage becomes a matter ditching 
of vital importance. Without sufficient 
ditches, the best ballast fails in its office, 
soon becomes filled with sand or clay, and, 
in winter when quick drainage is a neces- 
sity, acts as a reservoir to hold the water, 
with heaving track and all its miseries as 
a consequence. Although in Chapter II it 
was stated that ditching should be com- 
menced in the spring as soon as the frost 
is out of the ground, it must be understood 
that this item of track work is never un- 
seasonable, but should be pushed whenever 
necessary even to the exclusion of other 
work, because it quickly and amply repays 
all of the labor spent upon it. 

Each section should be provided with a straight 
ditching line, which should always be used ^"ches. 
in cleaning out an old ditch or opening a 
new one. Nothing looks worse than a 
water-way which staggers, now toward, now 
away from the track, narrow in some places 
and wide in others. Both in a flat country 
and through cuts, a cross section of the 
track and ditch should appear somewhat 
like Fig. 49. 

The "berm," or shoulder next to the track, section of 
should be lower than the bottom of the road=bed. 
ballast at the centre of the track, and suf- 
ficiently wide to insure its acting as a sup- 
port for the ballast, for which purpose it is 
principally intended. 



The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 




HOMO 3d019 



Drainage. 61 

In Fig. 49 it will be noticed that all of *®^"oiiof 
the corners are rounded, a form which they '■°"**°''®^' 
will eventually take and consequently the 
form which should be given to the earth at 
the start; otherwise the ditches must soon 
be cleaned of the material which will fall in 
from the edges. 

The width of the sub-grade from corner 
to corner varies greatly on different roads. 
On double track, 13 ft. centers, 8J-ft. ties, 
12 in. of ballast and a 3-ft. berm— 30 ft. 
would be the width, but if in the practice on 
any railroad any of these dimensions are 
different, it is evident that the width of the 
sub-grade will also be different. On single 
main track with 8|-ft. ties, 12 in. of ballast 
and a 3-ft. berm, the width of the sub-grade 
is about 17 ft. 

The practice of beginning a ditch at the Ditching 
upper end is so ridiculous that one would methods. 
suppose it unnecessary to caution trackmen 
against it. It is, however, a common and 
serious mistake. 

In many heavy cuts, as well as in making 
new ditches, a ditching plow which can be 
hauled by the locomotive of the work train 
will be found of considerable assistance in 
loosening the earth preparatory to loading 
it on cars, while, for disposing of more than 
five or six car loads of waste material, the 
unloading plow should be brought into play. 

Ditching machines are used quite fre- Ditching 
quently where much ditching is to be done, machines, 
and they do the work rapidly, cheaply and 
accurately. One form of these machines 
consists of a post crane mounted on a flat 
car, and operated by compressed air. A 
deep-soil plow for breaking up the earth, a 
bucket for putting the excavated material 
on cars and a plow unloader of the usual 
form for scraping the excavated material 
off the cars, are provided as a part of the 
outfit. Another form has a gallows-frame 



waste. 



62 The Roadmastees' Assistant. 

mounted on the car and the excavating 
buckets are hung from it and guided by 
ropes. 
Disposi= The material taken from ditches should 
tion of never be thrown up on the bank where it 
will be washed down again by the first rain, 
but should be loaded at once on the work 
train or push car and permanently dis- 
posed of. Every possible means should be 
taken to protect the ballast from this waste 
material which, if it becomes mixed with 
the ballast, is harmful. For all but the 
heaviest ditching, long-handled shovels 
should be used, in order that the men can 
easily reach the top of a loaded flat car from 
the bottom of the ditch, and so that they 
will not be forced to stoop too low in 
making a thin cut with a shovel. 

Large stones are not only unsightly when 
left in the path of a ditch, but are detri- 
mental. They may be sunk and buried 
where they lie, blasted and broken up, or 
a fire may be built over them until they are 
very hot, when it is often possible to shiver 
them by pouring cold water over them. 
Paving In towns, or where the work done is like- 

"^ ly to be of a lasting character, it will be 

found desirable to pave the ditches with 
large cobble stones, which can often be 
taken from gravel ballast, where they are 
always undesirable. Ditches paved in this 
way, when given sufficient fall, flush them- 
selves during each heavy rain and retain 
their shape for a long time, particularly 
when located at the foot of a well-sodded 
bank or a retaining well. 
Tile Tile drains have not until recently been 

used to any considerable extent on rail- 
roads, although, in many serious cases, they 
would effect a perfect cure. Tiles should 
be placed below frost (which varies from 
nothing in the South to at least 5 ft. in the 
extreme Northern States), with the ends of 



ditches. 



drains. 



Drainage. 63 

the tiles nearly but not quite touching, since TUe 
they are intended for collecting the water <'™'«8- 
quite as much as for carrying it off. To 
prevent dirt from being carried into the 
drain a sod or bunch of grass should be laid 
over each joint and the efficiency of the 
drain is greatly increased by covering the 
line of tile with several inches of coarse 
gravel or locomotive cinders. In wet slopes 
the tiles should be laid in parallel lines 
running diagonally down the face of the 
bank in the direction of the fall of the track, 
and of a size and frequency depending upon 
the amount of water to be carried away. 

The diagonal drains. Fig. 49, should be 
connected at their lower ends to a larger 
drain laid under the ditch, which should in- 
crease in size in the direction of its fall. 
If a spring exists in the bank a separate line 
of pipe should be laid from it to one of the 
diagonal drains, or to the large drain, while 
to secure perfect drainage on double track 
another line of tiles must be run between 
the tracks, just below the ballast, which 
last line should have frequent outlets com- 
municating with the large drains located on 
the outside of the tracks. 

Drain tiles are made in many forms and varieties 
sizes and of many different kinds of clay;®**"*- 
some are glazed and are therefore quite 
costly, but between these and the poorest 
quality are plenty of grades sufficiently 
good for the work in question and not high 
in price. Special tools are made for tile 
ditching (illustrated in the chapter on Tools) 
which are the most convenient form for this 
work. 

The desultory way in which section-men 
usually carry on a large piece of work does 
not lead to economical results; therefore if 
a large amount of tile is to be laid it will 
be most cheaply done by organizing a 
special gang for the purpose, or by letting 



64 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

the job to some outsider at so much per run- 
ning foot. 
Pole As a substitute for tiles, straight poles 

drains. roughly trimmed of their branches will 
serve. They should be laid heads and 
points, in a bunch of three or four, with 
their ends slightly overlapping, and at 
about the same depth as a tile drain. They 
make an excellent drain when so laid and 
will carry off large quantities of water, but 
they are never so good as tiles. 

There are many points around a track, 
such as highway crossings, wagon tracks at 
stations, etc., etc., where a ditch cannot be 
placed, or where it would be of no use, 
which might be made perfectly dry by sub- 
drainage at small cost, instead of being al- 
lowed to remain in the bad condition so 
often seen at such places. 
Slope — Wherever a cut has higher ground above 
ditches. ^^Q giopg liijg^ a ^i^ch (Fig. 49) should be 
dug, somewhat above it, to interrupt all 
surface water which might otherwise flow 
down and so destroy the slope. 
Sodding After a cut has been properly drained its 
banks. banks should be sown with grass seed, or 
better still, sodded, as a grassy slope is 
not only attractive in appearance but it will 
hold the earth firmly in position. The diflQ- 
culty in making grass grow at these points 
is chiefly due to poor soil and a too great 
steepness of the banks. The only means 
therefore of obviating the trouble is to sup- 
ply a good covering of loam on a properly 
sloped bank. On embankments, the turf 
should be made to grow over and on top of 
of the sub-grade for about a foot, forming 
a sightly border and affording protection to 
the shoulder of the bank. 

A new product known as "Dormant Sod" 
can be used where a quick growth is desired 
or where natural sod either cannot be pro- 
cured or will not grow. Tliis material is 



Dormant 
sod. 



Drainage. 



65 



made from well rotted dung which is first 
baked to destroy any seeds of weeds and 
then, mixed with selected lawn seed. It is 
then rolled into sheets about } in. thick and 
cut in 12-in. squares. To apply it, all that 
is necessary is to lay the squares on top of 
the soil and see that they are well watered. 

The form of a bank will differ somewhat l^!^^^ 
according to the material of which it is ^n^s. 
made. The commonest slope is IJ to 1; 
that is in Fig. 50 (which represents either a 
cut or fill), the middle line is seen to be 




BOTTOM Bj;^ 



Fig. 50 — Slope Diagram. 



10 ft. above C at A and 15 ft. away from 
C at B. The first distance given, IJ, refers 
to the horizontal line B C, and the second 
distance, 1, refers to the vertical measure- 
ments C— D, C— A, C— E, which in Fig. 50 
are 15 to 1\ (2 to 1), 15 to 10 (IJ to 1), and 
15 to 15 (1 to 1). 

With such poor material as clay or fine 
sand the inclination may have to be reduced 
as much as 2 ft. out to each 1 ft. in height, 
that is, 2 to 1, while with loose rock 1 to 1 is 
usually sufficient until, as the character of 



66 



The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 



the ground gradually approaches solid rock, 
the sides become more and more steep, so 
that they will finally reach an almost, if not 
quite, vertical position. 
Slope A gage (Fig. 51) for determining. the slope 

«*se. of any embankment is a convenient and in- 
expensive device. It is formed of three 
pieces of 3-in. by 1-in. pine with a fixed diag- 
onal distance of 6 ft. from pin to pin. The 




Fig. 51— Slope Gage. 



other two pieces have each three holes whicli 
are marked 1 — 1, 1^ — 1, and 2 — 1; when 
they are fastened together at these corre- 
sponding points by a movable pin, and the 
vertical piece is held straight by the plumb 
line, the diagonal piece will show^ the 
slope desired. This tool may be folded up 
when not in use by simply taking out the 
pin in the upper left-hand corner. 
Preserving Experience is absolutely necessary to pre- 
viously determine what slope to give a 
bank, and even the best judgment will occa- 
sionally prove at fault. When an error of 
this kind is made and a bank is found to be 
continually sliding there are several ways 



emoank- 
ments. 



Dkainage. 67 

of treating it. If it is a fill, tlie drainage Preserving 
question seldom enters and the trouble is ^^t"''" 
usually cured gradually, by either sodding 
the bank, or by dumping new material as 
fast as it is required. It will often be 
found, however, that this cannot be done 
without buying additional land along the 
right-of-way, or else paying damages to the 
neighboring proprietors for the occupation 
of their lands. When none of these methods 
will answer, a retaining wall of some kind 
becomes necessary, which, if it is to be per- 
manent, must be built of stone although it 
Avill last for many years if made of old tim- 
ber or cross ties in the form of a crib. The 
same conditions hold in cuts except with 
regard to drainage, which there, is apt to be 
the most important question. One cure has 
already been suggested in the treatment by 
tile drains, but cases may be met in which 
both tile drains and retaining walls will be 
required. 

If, as occasionally happens, an old em- 
bankment begins to slip, it ma}^ usually be 
stopped by placing tile drains in the man- 
ner already mentioned or by digging 
trenches 4 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep every 40 or 
.50 ft., at right angles to the track, and fill- 
ing these trenches with rubble stone or 
small nigger-heads. Heaving may some- 
times occur on embankments 5 ft. or 6 ft. 
high, due to the absorption of water from 
the bottom, and this also will yield to the 
usual and useful remedy of tile draining. 

Retaining or "face walls" of considerable Retaining: 
size should be built by masons, but smaller ^^"'• 
ones are often needed and these may be 
readily constructed by the track men, par- 
ticularly if the stone is conveniently situ- 
ated and easily worked. Small boulders and 
loose rocks when hammered roughly into 
shape, carefully laid and well backed, as in 
Fig. 52, make a good wall. There should be 



'Retain in if 
walls. 



The Roadmasters Assistant. 

a iirm and reliable bed for the foundation, 
begun below the point to which frost pene- 
trates, and means must be provided for a 
quick and easy passage of the water from 
the back to the face of the wall. This is 
best accomplished through loop holes or 
"weepers," in the masonry every few feet, 
the bottom of the holes being slightly above 
the highwater line of the ditch, while the 
rapidity of drainage will be increased by a 
back filling of coarse gravel or locomotive 
cinders. At excessively wet places a line 
of tile drain just back of the wall and con- 




tv^ 


i 


zmril 


-.i^ 




□!^n 





Pig. 52 — Retaining Wall and Ditch. 



nected with the loop holes, will be found of 
assistance in disposing of the water, atid 
will in that way offer great protection to tlie 
foundations as well as to the rest of the 
wall. The face of the wall sliould slope 
from the top to the bottom or have what is 
known as a "batter.'^ The amount of ^^at- 
ter" will vary somewhat with the circilm- 
Mances but for ordinary wall6 such as iB'fg. 
52, 2 in. in 1 ft. is suflBcient. The base of the 
wall proper (that is, the top of the founda- 
tion) should equal one-half its height, and 



Drainage. 69 

the top of the wall should equal one-third of 
its height, so that a wall extending 6 ft. 
above the ground line would have a base 3 
ft. wide and a top 2 ft. wide, as is shown in 
Fig. 52. 

The foundation, as will be seen, has no waii 
batter and no particular depth is given ; *»""^**«= 
this, as has been stated, must depend upon 
the quality of the bed and the distance to 
Avhich frost penetrates. The poorest bed 
for a foundation is composed of quicksand 
or bog; the best is solid rock or coarse 
gravel. Between these are different kinds 
of material, some fairly good, nianj^ very 
bad and since so much depends upon a suc- 
cessful selection it is best to ask advice 
where the matter seems at all uncertain. 
Much time 'and expense may be saved by 
sinking test holes before the work is begun, 
which, if done, will show what may be ex- 
pected and thus enable one to make all the 
necessary preparations. The resistance of 
a wall is greatly increased by slightly slop- 
ing the stones that lie above the foundation, 
as shown in Fig. 52. 

A cheaper, but not nearly so effective, 
way of holding the toe of a bank is accom- 
plished by laying upon their edges, stones 
which are somewhat flat in form, following 
always the natural slope of the bank. This 
method will tend to prevent the surface 
earth from sliding and may also be used 
with advantage at the foot of banks that are 
washed by a stream, particularly where the 
course of the stream is curved, but it must 
be regarded as a i)urely surface protection 
and not in any sense as a retaining wall. 



CHAPTER VII. 

CuLVEBTs, Trestles and Bridge Floors. 

The main track should never be laid use of 
directly on wooden stringers although on stringers, 
coal trestles and other structures of a like 
character where it is necessary to unload 
material by dumping it, the rails may be 
laid on stringers which should be tied to- 
gether at frequent intervals with 1-in. round 
iron bars. Reverse pointed spikes (Fig. 53), 
if any, must be used for fastening down the 
rail as the ordinary form tends to split the 
stringer. A better device for this purpose 



^3^] 



Fig. 53 — Reverse Pointed Spike. 

than the spike, however, is the interlocking 
bolt (Fig. 54) which does not work loose, 
wear out quickly or split the rail. Still an- 
other method is to use a lag screw with a 
clip or washer to cover the base of the rail. 




Pig. 54 — Bush InterlocklBg Bolt. 



72 The Roadmastees' Assistant. 

Culverts. Woodeu culverts are to be avoided wher- 
ever i)ossible. When an open culvert is 
unavoidable it is best built vvith stone walls 
surmounted by a standard metal bridge 
floor. For small openings, I-beams tied to- 
gether at the ends and well braced, mav 
be used where the culvert cannot be covered 
in the form of a box or arch. 

Cast iron i>ipes are often used for small 
culverts and up to an end area of about 15 
sq. ft, are cheaper than an arch. Baked 
clay pipes which are now largely used with 
good results are cheaper than iron but less 
substantial. Both kinds may be laid singly 
or in numbers, one beside the other. At the 



-^-v 




Fig. 55 — ripe Culvert. 

Upper end, such a culvert (Fig. 55) should 
begin in a stout, deep wall of stone laid in 
cement to prevent the water from leaking 
und^r it, around it, or washing the bank. 
At the down-stream end, the outlet should 
be paved for a short distance, particularly 
if the water has any fall on leaving the 
pipe, while the earth under the whole 
length of the pipe should be rammed and 
well settled before the pipe is laid. 

Old wooden culverts can frequently be 
repaired and made permanent by inserting 
through them cast-iron or clay pipes, after- 
wards filling around them with dirt well 
rammed in. It is well to remember that the 
material for this filling should be the same 
as that which constitutes the rest of the 



Culverts, Tuestles and Bridge Plooks. 

bank up to the bottom of the ballast, in 
oiHier that the rate of heaving in winter 
shall remain the same. 

For covered waterways a stone arch is 
by all means the best form of culvert, al- 
tliough a strong, flat, stone cover, where the 
span is very short, will do quite as well. 
Concrete masonry arches are now used ex- 
tensively for openings up to 40 ft. and this 
material seems to be coming into use more 
and more. 

The theory that it is best to endeavor to Bridge 
re-rail a derailed truck before it reaches a *>«<»«• 
bridge has given way to the practice of 
building floors in such a manner as to carrv 
a derailed wheel across the bridge without 
causing a wreck. This last plan is some- 
times accomplished by placing the ties very 
close together, or by putting heavy iron 
])lates on each side of the rails and on top 
of the ties, or both, thus providing a nearly 
smooth floor along which a flange may trav- 
el without much shock or jar. A modern 
method, concerning the economy of which 
opinions differ, is to provide a floor system 
which will permit the standard track, in 
eluding ties and ballast, to be carried en- 
tirely across the bridge. On metal bridges 
tliis is done (usually) by means of what are 
called "buckle plates," and since it is a 
method entirely beyond the powers of the 
track force, it need not be discussed here. 

Fig. 56 illustrates one form of ballasted 
Avooden trestle from which it will be seen, 
by comparison with Fig. 60, that the only 
essential additions to the ordinary trestle 
are four stringers, a floor of planking and a 
curb on each side of the planking. The 
danger from fire is greatly reduced, the cost 
of maintenance is. reduced and the life of the 
trestle prolonged. On the Louisville & 
Nashville the flooring planks of such tres- 
tles are creo&oted in order to preserve them. 



74 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Bridge 
floors. 




^7x14-28' Stringers sized over caps to 7x13% 

1 !?x 12-12' Cops 



Fig. 56— Ballasted Trestle. 





Fig. 57 — Ballasted Bridge Floors. 
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe. 



Culverts, Trestles and Bridge Fi>oors. 



75 



Another form of ballasted bridge floor, de- Bridge 
signed by Mr. A. F. Robinson, Bridge Engi- **oors. 
neer of the Santa Fe, is shown in Fig. 57. 
Some timber and bolts are all the materials 
needed to build such a floor and the labor 
can be done by any bridge gang. The tim- 
ber is all creosoted to preserve it. 

The construction shown in Fig. 58 is de Re=raiiing 
signed to re-rail a pair of trucks which have device. 




SECTION AT CD 

Fig. 58 — Bridge Approach Re-railing Device. 



left the rails, first by forcing them into the 
straight position by means of the outside 
guard timbers (which are shod with iron 
plates) and the inside guard rails; then, by 
means of the castings A and B, to raise the 
wheels so that those outside will be carried 
up to the top of the rails and gradually 
pulled into place. The inside guard rails are 
often finished off and brought together 
some distance from the bridge with an iron 
point taken from a condemned frog. This 
is not altogether a good plan since in many 
cases, the wheels of a derailed car are di- 
verted more than half the gage of the track 
and the pointed guard rails then become a 
source of danger. 



76 



The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 



Bridge 
floors. 



Fig. 59 illustrates a method, used on some 
roads, of providing a nearly solid floor but 
with no attempt to replace any derailed 
wheels. The central rails — D — E are 
bent down at the ends of the bridge so that 



SIDE VIEW OF BENT RAILS 







_4iL JL___ X„„X___a:.-- 



^ ^_ .jj- 

1 1 SECTION AT A-B 1 1 

Fig. 59— rrotected Bridge Floor. 



Shimmins^ 
" bridge 
floors. 



nothing may cateli upon them and the 
ties are placed close together in order that 
the shocks to the derailed wheels may be 
very slight. A strip of heavy metal plates 
laid on each side of the main rails will still 
further add to the protection of the ties and 
the efficiency of the construction. 

On all bridge floors, where the ties are 
laid directly on the stringers, the ties should 
be frequently bolted to the guard timbers 
on the outside of the track, and inside guard 
rails should be provided, securely braced 
and fastened to the ties. 

Trackmen should be very cautious about 
shimming the ties or stringers at bridges, 
trestles and culverts. The practice is much 
overdone, and should by all means be left tiv 
the bridge gang, except in cases of extreme 
necessitv. 



Culverts, Tkestles axd Bridge Floous. 77 

The construction of trestles must usually Ttestiei. 
be left to the bridge gang-, but occasions will 
often arise on small roads where the knowl- 
•edge as to how a temporary trestle should 
be built may be of considerable assistance 
to the roadmaster in repairing the road after 
a wreck or a washout. 

A simple form of trestle is shown in Pig. 
60, consisting of abutments and piers called 
''bents," spaced 12 ft. apart from center to 
center. These support the "stringers" on 
which the cross-ties and rails are laid. The 




Fig. go — Typical Trestle. 



top and bottom pieces of a bent are called 
respectively the "cap" and "sill," the outside 
inclined posts are called "batter posts," 
while the inside posts are called "plumb 
posts." All of these pieces should be formed 
of sound timber and, except the stringers, of 
sticks not less than 12 in. by 12 in. square, 
nor more than 20 ft. long, because this 
method is not adapted to higher structures. 
The stringers, if formed of clean white pine, 
should be four in number, two under each 
rail, and with an end section of 8 in. by 16 
in. Either the size or the number of string- 
ers must be increased if the material is not 
perfectly good. Wherever it is possible the 



78 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

Trestles, joints of the stiiiigers should be broken, but 
this will require 24-ft. timbers, which can- 
not always be secured when they are need- 
ed, and the necessity may be avoided in 
temporary work by substituting strong 
knee braces overlapping the joints and 
nailed firmly to the stringers with heavy 
boat spikes. 

If the trestle is likely to remain long in 
place, the posts should be fastened to the 
cap and sill by 1-in. drift bolts, 2 ft. long. 
Parallel stringers should be joined by 1-in. 
bolts and separated from each other for 
the purpose of drainage by washers 1 in. 
thick, while to prevent them from shifting 
sideways a 2-in. plank may be nailed along 
the top of the cap, close up to, and in con- 
tact with the stringers. The stringers must 
also be securely braced against the bank at 
each end in order that the trestle shall not 
lean. Where there are more than three or 
four bents, longitudinal braces of 3-in. x 12- 
in. material must be provided to stiffen the 
trestle throughout its length as shown in 
Fig. 60. Trestles built of timber treated with 
some modern preservative process cannot 
be considered as temporary structures and 
since they are so easily constructed by un- 
skilled labor at a low first cost there is no 
reason why they should not be extensively 
used in many places. Well-creosoted wood 
is practically non-inflammable after the first 
year's exposure and this removes the great- 
est source of danger from such structures. 
Erecting^ In rapid streams it is sometimes neces- 
bents. , gary to float the bents into place, but this 
can usually be accomplished by means of 
an anchor line up stream and eight guy 
lines, two at each end of the cap and two 
at each end of the sill. Care must be taken 
that the sill shall rest on an even founda- 
tion and, if possible, one whose material, 
when exposed to the wash of a stream, will 



Culverts, Tuestles and Bbidoe Floors. 

not scour from under the sill and let it sink. 
To prevent this it is well to dump some 
large stones and brush at the sides of, and 
at the up-stream end of each bent, after it is 
in place, particularly if the trestle is to re- 
main for any length of time. 

Where any considerable amount of bridge pjje 
or trestle work is to be done the pile-driver driver 
car (Fig. 61) is particularly useful and will 




Fig. 61 — Pile-Diivei- Car, Industrial Works. 



save much time and expense. Several forms 
of these machines are built, all more or less 
alike in their operation. The leaders are 
mounted on a revolving table which gives 
the machine a considerable radius of action 
and they are also adjustable to considerable 
angles with the vertical which makes it 
possible to drive "batter" piles. The whole 
car is self-propelling when rigged for work 
and when being taken to and from the work 



80 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

the leaders can be "knocked down' by the 
removal of a few bolts and stowed away on 
the table. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Ballast. 

The usual reasons given for not having 
good ballast under a track are that it can- 
not be found near enough the place where it 
is wanted, or that the road is too poor to get 
it when it is close by. Ninety-nine times 
out of a hundred the first reason is a wrong 
one. Gravel or sand is probably near at 
hand if someone will only wake up and look 
for it. The second reason is not worth dis- 
cussing, for an unballasted track is ex- 
pensive to maintain; much more costly than 
if well ballasted. 

The diiferent kinds of ballast occupy Kinds of 
about the following order of merit: broken baiiast. 
stone, clean coarse gravel, furnace slag, 
engine cinder and clean sand. Almost any 
limestone or granitic rock will form a good 
ballast, but very soft sandstones and clay 
or shale rocks should not be used. Soft 
sandstone breaks in tamping, while the 
clay or shale rocks, although they may be 
hard when put into the track, fall to pieces 
very rapidly when exposed to the weather. 
Burnt clay has also been tried, but it is in- 
ferior to either broken stone or gravel, be- 
cause the ballast partakes too much of the 
character of ordinary building brick and is 
not uniform in hardness. Even the best of 
it is said to fracture quite easily. However, 
where stone and gravel are practically un- 
obtainable and coal and clay are available, 
as in some places in the West, burnt clay is 



82 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

probably the best material to use. Zinc tail- 
ings, commonly called "chats" is used 
throughout Missouri and eastern Kansas 
and it makes an excellent ballast, better 
even than gravel or broken stone. It can 
be obtained, however, only in a very limited 
district around the zinc mines near Joplin, 
Mo. It resembles flint and comes in pieces 
that pass through a f-in. mesh screen. It is 
easily handled, gives a good bed for the ties 
when properly tamped and effectually pre- 
vents vegetation from springing up between 
the tracks. 
Broken It is uot by any means an universally ac- 

stone. cepted opinion that broken stone ballast is 
better than gravel. Many engineers believe 
that the greater ease with which gravel can 
be handled more than compensates for the 
lasting quality of stone, but it seems almost 
certain that for roads having many and 
heavy trains nothing in the end is so good as 
clean broken stone. This is borne out in 
practice by the fact that a number of roads 
which have good gravel avaible are aban- 
doning the use of it in favor of broken stone. 
Stone is practically indestructible and al- 
most immovable when once placed and 
properly tamped. When kept clean it per- 
mits of the most perfect drainage, and when 
it becomes foul, may be cleaned by simply 
handling it with forks, after which it is as 
good as new. It costs more to prepare a 
track with stone ballast, but on the other 
hand it costs less to maintain it, while in 
addition it is probable that the ties last con- 
siderably longer in stone than they 'do in 
gravel ballast, other circumstances being 
the same, because of the better drainage. 

There are three ways of procuring stone 
ballast. The first is for the railroad com- 
pany to own and operate a quarry and 
crusher; the second is for the company to 
buy its broken stone of some contractor 



BALLAST; 83 

delivered on cars, and the third is for the 
railroad to own the quarry and crusher 
plant and lease them to a contractor, buying 
the crushed stone at a low price delivered 
on the company's cars. Each way has its 
special advantages, but it is usually more 
satisfactory for a road to own and operate 
its quarry, since it will then have a supply 
of ballast available at all times. 

Quarries differ so in location that none stone 
but the most general description of the best q"a»-"es. 
method of operation can be of much use. The 
crusher should, if possible, be placed high 
enough to discharge the ballast into the cars 
by gravity, and far enough from the loading 
track to permit of placing a car between the 
ballast car and the crusher to receive the 
screenings. The screenings are a valuable 
by-product of stone ballast and should not 
under any circumstances be wasted. For 
certain purposes such as sidewalks and plat- 
forms at small stations they are excellent, 
but they should be excluded from the track 
since they will impair, to a large extent, the 
drainage capacity of the ballast. 

Although it is desirable to transmit the conveyors, 
crushed stone directly from the crusher to 
the cars by gravity, a good quarry need not 
be ignored because that cannot be done. 
Conveying buckets, which are filled and 
dumped automatically, can be used, and ma- 
terial transported for long distances, up and 
down and around corners without the inter- 
position of a single pair of hands and at a 
small cost of operation. 

If it is desired to supplement the supply 
of stone from the quarry, by stone brought 
from other points, a track may be carried 
from the level of the main track up to the 
top and back of the crusher, by means of 
which the stone may be conveniently un- 
loaded. This track should gradually descend 
from the crusher until it meets and con- 



84 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Size of 
5tone. 



Rotary 
crushers. 



Jaw 
crushers. 



nects with the track on which the crushed 
stone is loaded. The switch connected with 
this may be automatic and fitted with a 
spring so that when the car descends from 
the top of the crusher it will of itself set 
the switch right and the spring will replac*^ 
the switch to that position which will send 
the car under the crusher on its return 
journey. The tracks running under the dis- 
charge of the crusher should be built on a 
grade of not less than 50 ft. to the mile so 
that cars may be moved without the help of 
an engine. 

Stone should be crushed so that it will 
pass through a 2|-in. ring; anything larger 
is too large for good track work, and if the 
stone be broken smaller the precentage of 
screenings will become too great. Certain 
flat stones, much larger than this will slip 
through the crusher, and these, if they are 
not returned to the crusher and so reduced 
to the proper dimensions, must be broken 
by hand after the ballast has been dumped 
on the track; in any event every section 
gang using stone ballast should have a sup- 
ply of napping hammers. 

There are two general types of stone 
crushers. The "Rotary'' (Fig. 62) consists of 
a heavy cast-iron casing which has a conical 
opening down through the center. In this 
opening is supported a powerful, solid, cor- 
rugated cone which not only revolves around 
its own axis but is supported at the bottom 
by an eccentric which also revolves and 
forces the cone near to and then away from 
the sides of the inner casing. The stone is 
dumped into the top, and by the eccentric 
motion of the solid cone is gradually broken 
as it passes down to the bottom, where it is 
discharged from the chute, of the proper 
size. 

The "Jaw" crusher, shown in Fig. 63, 
operates by means of a fixed plate, which 



Ballast. 



85 




Fig, 62— Gates Rotary Stone Crusher. 




Pig. 63 — Jaw Stone Crusher. 



has opposed to it another plate hinged at its 
upper end and moved at the lower end; this 
alternately increases and diminshes the 
opening between the two plates, crushing 
the stone in the operation. 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 




Ballast. 87 

A complete crushins^, screening and stor- stone 
age plant Is shown in Fig. 64. It is made by crushing 
the Allis-Clialmers Company which also ''^^"*' 
makes the Gates crusher. The plant is 
equipped with an elcA^ating and conveying 
system throughout and after the rougli 
stone has been dumped into the top of the 
crusher, the rest of the operations are en- 
tirely automatic. The broken stone is car- 
ried from the bottom of the crusher up to 
the screens and delivered to storage bins 
below, from which it is loaded into cars by 
gravity. All stones which are too large are 
rejected on the screens and returned to the 
crusher through a special chute. 

A barrel screen for ballast is shown in 
Fig. 65 and a crusher with elevator attach- 
ment for loading the stone directly into cars 
is shown in Fig. 66. 



Pig. 65 — Barrel Screen for Stone Ballast. 

Stone ballast should never be placed upon New 
a nev7 embankment, which is almost certain embanks 
to settle and destroy the established grade; *"^''*^' 
further, if any ballast has been laid, it will 
be covered by the material which is used to 
bring the track up to the proper level. The 
use of stone for this purpose is too expen- 
sive, and it is therefore better to wait until 
the track has settled before stone ballasting 
is begun. The sub-grade should be made of 
the full width and crowned sufficiently to 
discharge water freely before any ballast is 
placed upon it. On the Illinois Central it is 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

the practice to first ballast with rolling mill 
or furnace slag and to postpone finishing 
with stone for a year or two. This gives a 
good temporary surface at moderate cost, 
even when the slag must be hauled long 
distances and involves no waste of the more 
expensive material. 




Fig. 66— Elevator for Loading Broken Stone. 



Cleaning 
ballast. 



Stone ballast should never be handled on 
the ground with anything but a fork (see 
illustration in chapter on tools) which will 
not pick up dirt and can be pushed into the 
ballast with comparative ease. A screen 
should also be provided for cleaning the 
stone whenever it is taken from the ties. 
This should be done at intervals, usually of 
about three years, at w^hich periods it will 
be found that the interstices between the 
stones are nearly, if not quite filled up with 
cinders. 



Ballast. 

Although, as has been suggested, stone Qravei 
ballast is the best material for supporting ^aUast. 
a railroad track for a heavy train service, 
dean coarse gravel is also an excellent ma- 
terial. It is cheaper than stone, easier to 
handle, easier to raise tracks with, permits 
of fairly good drainage and, through its use, 
a good track may be secured — for a time. 
Gravel, however, will not carry the water 
off so fast as broken stone and it cannot be 
successfully cleaned except by an expensive 
process of washing. 

The gravel pit should be located as near Gravel 
the railroad and as near the center of the ?»*»• 
division to be ballasted as possible. The 
deeper the cutting in good material, the 
better, in order to avoid moving the shovel 
oftener than is absolutely necessary, while 
the pit should be as long as possible so that 
the switching engine may handle a large 
number of cars at one time. There should 
also be plenty of room for switching tracks 
so that the loading and distributing trains 
need not be delayed by waiting for each 
other. 

The cheapest way is to buy the land, strip 
it of gravel and then, if possible, sell it; but 
if that plan is not convenient the gravel 
may be paid for by the yard, purchased for 
a lump sum to be removed in some specified 
time or an annual rental may be paid for 
the land with the privilege of taking out as 
much or as little gravel as the railroad com- 
pany pleases. In any case the pit must be 
carefully stripped before the ballast is re- 
moved because nothing is worse in the track 
than the loam which covers most gravel de- 



If much work is to be done, a steam shovel Distribwt- 
(Figs. 67 and 68) must be used and worked *°s 
day and night if necessary, for in these days ^'"^® ' 
of ballast plows and electric or gasoline 
llsrhts there is no difficulty in loading and 



90 The Roadmastees' Assistant. 

Distribut- unloading ballast at night. In this way 
*"2 double the track force can be worked with 

^""^^^ * each steam shovel and double the work ac- 
complished with each plant. If the road on 
which the ballasting is being done is poor, 
much may be accomplished in having the 
cars unloaded by way-freights. The cable 
may be left, each time it is used, at the end 
of the dump, ready for the next day's work, 
and the unloaded cars may be switched on 
to some convenient side track to be returned 
to the pit by the next freight going in that 
direction. If, however, a great deal of work 
is to be done, a sufficient number of trains 
should be assigned to the service, well 
manned by intelligent trainbands and 
equipped with good engines, suitable cars 
and special appliances for unloading the 
ballast. The engines particularly should be 
reliable and able to haul a full train without 
breaking dov/n. It has been a common idea 
that any old engine, out of repair and al- 
most ready for the scrap-heap, is good 
enough for maintenance-of-way service, but 
if the cost of the delay that is caused by 
breaking down at inconvenient times be 
considered, it is certain that a considerable 
economy will result from the use of reliable 
motive power in this service. No simple 
delay of any train is so costly to a railroad 
as the delay of a work train, 
steam The stoam shovel (Figs. 67 and 68) should 

shovel. \yQ able to move itself forward without the 
use of a rope and should have a long reach. 
It should be carefully and regularly in- 
spected, and any little damage should be 
promptly repaired. Six or eight men, be- 
sides the engineman, will be necessary in 
attendance on the shovel, whose duties will 
be the poling down of the ballast, and the 
laying of track for the shovel. 

An unloading plow is almost a necessity 
to every railroad, and one which uses stakes 



Ballast. 



91 




Steam 
shovel. 



92 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



steam 
shovel . 




;:?2 P 

^ s 



OS 



m 






Ballast. 93 

on the side of a flat car for guiding the plow unloading 
as in Fig. 69 instead of the old-fashioned p'<>^- 
center strip, is the best. The center strip is 
not only an expense but an inconvenience 
because it unfits the car for certain kinds of 
freight, and only cars equipped with it can 
be used in a ballast train with a plow built 




Fig. 69— Barnhart Unloading Plow. 

to be guided by it. When side stakes only 
are necessary, any flat car may be taken 
from its regular service and placed at once 
in the ballast train. If the brake- wheels are 
on the ends they must first be changed to 
the sides in any case. 

Various forms of unloading arrangements unloading 
are shown in Figs. 70 to 77. In Fig. 70 a methods, 
form of hoisting engine (which, however, 
exerts in this case a horizontal pull) is 
mounted on a flat car and receives steam 
directly from the locomotive. It will un- 
load any material which could be used for 
ballast or be taken from a ditch or cutting. 
From the fact that the unloading device is 
independent of the locomotive, the plow 
may be moving in one direction while the 
train is mdving in the opposite direction 
making it possible to have the ballast dis- 
tributed between the extremes, of all in one 
place, or in a thin sheet over a long piece 
of track. 

The ballast unloading and distributing 
devices of the Rodger Ballast Car Company 
are shown in Figs. 71 to 74. The special 



94 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



BaUast 
unloader. 



Ballast. 95 




Fia. 71 — Rodger Convertible Dump Car. 




Fig. 72 — Center Dump. 



Fig. 7.3 — Side Dump. 




Fig. 74— Rodger Ballast Plow. 



96 The Roadmastebs' Assistant. 

Damp form of dump car, Figs. 71 to 73, can be 
*^®*^*' readily converted from a hopper bottom 

car, dumping the ballast between the rails, 
into a flat bottom car with hinged sides 
suitable for use with the usual form of 
gravel plow. After the ballast has been un- 
loaded on the track, the plow car, Fig. 74, 
follows along and distributes the material 
over the sub-grade ready for the ballast 
gang to put it under the track. These cars 
will handle any form of ballast or filling. 

Figs. 75, 76 and 77 illustrate an all-steel 
car which dumps in several different ways 
by means of the inclined aprons which are 
hinged at the top, and by valves (traps) in 
the bottom of the car and running its whole 
length. The dumping is done by com- 
pressed air or hj a hand-lever located on the 
end platform. This car will discharge half 
its load in one side and half on the other; 
half in the center and half on the outside; 
all on one side or all in the center as is de- 
sired by the operator. The changes are 
accomplished by the simple movement of a 
lever, and the operation of dumping occu- 
pies but a second or two. 
Re-teai- In re-ballasting long stretches of road, 

Hasting, the track is usually found to be full of small 
sags and humps, which frequently cause the 
breaking in two of trains and largely in- 
crease the cost of hauling. The opportunity 
should then be taken of re-establishing the 
original, or a better, grade. For this pur- 
pose, levels should be run on the rail and 
after a careful inspection of the profile, 
grade stakes should be set for the guidance 
of the trackmen. It is surpriisng what good 
results at small cost can be secured by a 
little care and forethought in this matter. 
The alinement of the track may also be cor- 
rected at this time better than at any other, 
particularly on bad curves and long tan- 
gents. 



Ballast. 



97 




Dump 
cars. 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Dump 
cars. 




Fig. 76 — Cross-Section of Goodwin Car. 




Fig. 77— End Elevation of Goodwin Car. 



Ballast. 9 

In certain spots on nearly all railroads the Heaving 
usual amount of ballast will not stop heav- ^^°**' 
ing even when the road is properly drained ; 
these spots or "pockets" may be dug out and 
filled in with gravel or a special line of tile 
may be laid from them to the ditch, while 
in extreme cases a recourse may be neces- 
sary to both plans. 

Not less than 8 in. of ballast should be Ballast 
placed under the ties, and the more there sections. 
is, the better the track will be, although for 
practical purposes 12 in. is sufficient. An 
inspection of Figs. 78, 79 and 80, which are 
the ballast sections of three important rail- 
roads, will show the diversity of practice. 
Attention is called to the full and generous 
lines of the gravel section on Fig. 80; these 
seem to promise a greater stability than 
where the material begins to slope from the 
rail or from the center of the track. 

In Fig. 81 is shown what is probably the Baiiast 
average of all practice as regards the top drains, 
and side lines of the ballast, wherein the 
portion of each section on the left represents 
stone, and that on the right, gravel. In this 
case, however, the sub-grade of the double 
track differs from the ordinary types, in 
that the drainage is made similar to that of 
single track by sloping its top at a grade of 
25 to 1 in each direction from the center of 
the ties. The w^ater between the tracks is 
then collected by a line of 6-in. tile having 
open joints, which is tapped at right angles 
every 100 ft. by cross lines of 3-in. tiles with 
closed joints. Something of this sort is 
quite common in Europe and might well be 
used here. 

Some form of track jack, of which there Track 
are several good ones, should always be J»^^*- 
used in raising track. The jack should be 
strong, but light enough to be moved short 
distances by one man, and when in use 
should never be placed between the rails. 



100 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 




Ballast. 



101 




102 



The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 




Ballast. 



103 




104 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Track 
acks. 




Fig. 84 — Norton 
Track Jack. 



Fig. 85 — Boyer & Radford 
Track Jack. 



At least one bad accident has occurred 
through the carelessness of a trackman who 
left the jack under the rail where a train 
struck it and was derailed, causing the in- 
jury and death of a large number of people; 
a sufficiently strong incident to show the 
results of carelessness on a railroad. The 
jacks shown in Figs. 82 to 85 are all of well- 
known make and require no explanation. 

Great care must be taken when raising 
track, to have caution signs located or flag- 
men sent out a sufficient distance from 
where the work is going on, to enable trains 
to reduce their speed. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Cross Ties. 

The proper selection, inspection and dis- Tie 
tribution of cross ties is one of the impor- inspection, 
tant duties of a roadmaster, since in this 
matter he comes more in contact with those 
persons who have something to sell than in 
any other way. All sorts of tricks are prac- 
ticed to conceal defects in the material; red 
oak passes as first-class white oak, ties are 
piled in such a way as to show only those 
parts which are up to the specifications, etc. 
A roadmaster should therefore be forever 
on his guard against such possibilities.* 

Where ties are bought along the line, a Date of 
certain time in each month should be taken inspection. 
for inspecting and counting them. This 
gives the dealers a chance to be present 
when their ties are counted and enables the 
roadmaster to settle almost all questions 
and disputes, (some of which are sure to 
arise) without wasting time and with very 
little trouble. All ties should be plainly 
and indelibly marked on one end with paint 
or a stamp, when they are inspected, in such 
a way as to make it impossible for them to 
be presented a second time, and to facilitate 



*The Proceedings of the American Railway Engineer- 
ing and Maintenance of Way Association contains much 
valuable information about ties, ballast, bridges and 
other matters relating to track work and they should be 
read by all trackmen who are seeking not only the best 
way of doing their work, but also the reasons why one 
way is better than another. No attempt has been made 
within the limits of this little book to go into many of 
the problems of track work at great length, and the read- 
er is referred for more detailed information and results 
of exhaustive tests, to these Proceedings. 



106 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

the work of inspection they should be piled 
in alternate layers at right angles to each 
other, with a space of 6 in. or 8 in. betv/een 
each two ties of the same layer. It is well 
to distribute the ties as soon as possible 
after inspection, and dealers should be re- 
quired to remove all their rejected ties from 
the right-of-way within a stated time. 
Size and The Ordinary dimensions for cross ties 
quality, ^^e 6 in. X 8 in.' x SJ ft., and they should not 
be less but may properly be increased to 7 
in. X 9 in. X 8J ft. They must be of perfectly 
sound material and it is preferable that 
only one tie should be cut from a section of 
a tree. This insures that the timber is 
young and of second growth. It is best 
that all ties shall be cleared of bark before 
they are paid for by the railroad company 
but in order that the inspection may be re- 
liable, the bark of white oak must be left on 
until after the inspection. When the ties 
are shipped from a distance this arrange- 
ment may not be convenient but it may 
nearly alwa^^s be managed by an agreement 
with the contractor and should be done if it 
is possible. 
Sawed and If the ties are hewed, they must be 
«tr^** dressed with the faces parallel, for a warped 
tie makes bad track. A prejudice against 
sawed ties exists which is to a large extent 
founded on the belief that a sawed tie will 
not last so long as a hewed tie taken from 
the same tree. This is probably not true. 
The reason that sawed ties do not as a rule 
last so long as hewed ties is that they are 
frequently cut from large (and that often 
means old) timber, which has already sur- 
vived its usefulness. The same objection 
exists with regard to split ties and on the 
other hand is impossible in the case of 
hewed pole ties. Sawed ties, which are 
known to have been cut from young, vigor- 
ous timber are perfectly fitted for the main 



Cross Ties. 107 

track, while at switches or frogs, on bridges 
and in all places where the ties are laid 
upon stringers, sawed ties only should be 
used since the surfaces of hewn ties are 
neither flat nor parallel. 

Where it is possible to require it, ties Time for 
should be cut in the middle of summer or cutting, 
in winter, at which times the sap is not in 
motion. The winter is the best time, since 
then they may be distributed exactly where 
they are wanted before the spring work 
begins. By this practice, a time of the year 
is utilized during which little else can be 
done and the way is prepared for the rapid 
placing of the ties in the track as isoon as 
the season permits. 

Long continued experiments have shown seasoning, 
that proper seasoning is an important ele- 
ment in the life of cross ties and to insure 
proper seasoning the ties should be piled 
up and exposed to the air for at least three 
months. The piles should be built so that 
plenty of air spaces are provided and a 
fairly water-tight roof should be built over 
them with two layers of ties laid close to- 
gether and covering joints. 

Next to white oak, which combines the Tie 
qualities of holding a spike and resisting timber, 
decay longer than any other timber that is 
in common use, chestnut, yellow pine and 
black and red cypress are probably the best. 
These are closely followed by cedar, tam- 
arac, and in the far western states, redwood. 
The supply of white oak fit for cross ties 
is nearly exhausted in the northern states, 
and the larger roads now procure many 
hundreds of thousands of ties a year from 
Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky and 
some of the other southern states. 

The probable annual rate of steam and Tie plates, 
electric railroad building in the United 
States will draw still further on a rapidly 
decreasing supply, both for the construction 



108 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 




Q. & W. Tie-Plate. 




Dilworth-Porter Tie-Plate. Federal Tie-Plate. 

Fig. 86 — Forms of Tie-Plates. 



Tie 

plates. 



of new roads and their maintenance after 
they are built. It is therefore of great im- 
portance that some means shall be taken to 
lengthen the life of ties, not only because 
there is real danger of exhausting the sup- 
ply but because of the direct economy which 
will follow their increased service. It may 
be extended considerably by the use of a 



Cross Ties. 



109 



tie plate, Fig. 86. The so-called "Servis" tie Tie 
plate is made from a piece of sheet steel p'a^s. 
with the longitudinal edges sharpened and 
bent down at right angles. 

Sometimes intermediate ribs and a rail 
brace are added, but these are not essential 
and it is quite doubtful if they increase the 
value of the plate. The first object of the tie 
plate was to preserve the tie from the 
pounding and crushing effect of the rail, but 
time developed other qualities of almost 
equal value. The lateral strength of the 
track was much increased by the support 
which the plate offered to the spike. This 
action is most plainly seen on curves, but 
even on tangents it may be noticed, par- 
ticularly where track is not maintained in 
good surface. 

In setting tie plates, great care must be setting 
used to get them to exactly the right gage *'® p*"*®^- 
and also to bring all of the bottom surfaces 




d 



n 



C 




Fig. 87 — Ware's Tie-Plate Gage and Surfacer. 



110 The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 

in close contact with the tie in order to 
prevent dirt from working in between the 
plate and the tie. Almost all makers of tie 
plates furnish a gage to lay them by and 
one of these, the Ware tie plate gage and 
surfacer is shown in Fig. 87. 
Wood Some wood-preserving process, such as 

preserving creosoting has become almost a necessity 
process. ^^^ although there is little exact data to 
show how much the life of a tie is prolonged 
by such processes, experience in both this 
country and Europe would seem to indicate 
that instead of having to remove ties under 
main track at the end of seven or eight 
years it is necessary to do so only once in 
15 years, or even longer periods of time, 
when they are treated by some preserving 
process. The saving resulting from this 
would be even greater than is apparent for 
it would include not only a saving in the 
cost of ties but also in all the labor of in- 
specting, distributing and of putting them 
in, as well as from having to disturb the 
track so infrequently, a reason which every 
trackman will appreciate. In Europe, where 
timber is much scarcer than here, creosoted 
ties have been for many years in common 
use and are giving, on the whole, the best of 
results.* 
creoso= Of the many processes now in use, the 

ting. i3egt is probably the simple creosote (dead 
oil of tar) process, in which sufficient 
amounts of creosote are injected under pres- 
sure to fill all the pores of the wood. While 
this is perhaps the most effective method of 
treatment, it is also one of the most ex- 
pensive and various modifications have been 
tried with much success, the most generally 



*The Bulletins of the Department of Agriculture, pre- 
pared by Dr. Hermann von Schrenk, give much valuable 
and interesting data on the subject of timber preserving 
processes, and the reader is also referred again to the 
Proceedings of the American Railway Engineering and 
Maintenance of Way Association. 



Cross Ties. 




112 



The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 



Tie 

treating 

plants. 



Metal 
ties. 



used being salts of zinc. The great advan- 
tage of creosote is that it is insoluble in 
water and cannot be leached out as can zinc 
chloride. If the preservative is thus leached 
out the timber is left in practically the same 
condition as before treatment. 

Timber treating plants of large capacity 
have been installed in the heart of the tim- 
ber country at a number of places, espe- 
cially in the South, and are now turning out 
large quantities of treated timber. A num- 
ber of railroads have built plants for their 
own use and in some cases these are porta- 
ble like the one shown in Fig. 88, in which 
the retort in which the ties are treated 
under pressure is mounted on wheels and 
can be transported from place to place thus 
saving the cost of shipping ties to and from 
the plant. Timber treating processes have 
made many hitherto worthless kinds of tim- 
ber useful for cross ties and other purposes. 
These include such soft and quick-decaying 
woods as beech, tamarack, loblolly-pine and 
other evergreens. 

Iron and steel ties have also been used 
extensively in Europe, and in this country 
to a very limited extent. There are many 
forms of metal ties, each of which is claimed 
to have special advantages over all others, 




SECTION AT C-;0 



Fig. 89 — ^Two Forms of Metal Ties. 



Ckoss Ties. 11$ 

and several of which resemble each other ^**^* 
closely, so that if their use is decided upon, ^'®^* 
a choice should not be difficult. There are a 
few places, as in busy tunnels, where it is 
possible that their use is warranted even at 
their present cost, for they may be expected 
to last almost as long as the rails. 

In Fig. 89 are shown two typical forms 
of metal ties. Each of them is made from 
a thin sheet of iron or steel, rolled or pressed 
into shape, and the rail is held to them 
usually by a clip, bolt and nut, as in Fig. 91, 
although as explained below, the sheets of 
fibre which surround the rail are only used 
under exceptional conditions. 

Concrete combined in various forms with concrete 
steel has also been tried for cross ties but *'es- 
with no great success because it is quickly 
disintegrated under the pounding action of 
the rail. One form which is typical of the 
many forms which have been tried is shown 
in Fig. 90. It consists of a concrete body 
moulded around a twisted steel tie-bar and 




Fig. 90 — Kimball Concrete and Steel Tie. 

a stiffening plate. Hardwood blocks are 
moulded in at each end for spiking down 
the rail and to form a more or less elastic 
cushion. AH of the forms of concrete ties 
suggested are high in first cost compared to 
wood ties and their life is questionable. 

The Great Northern has been experiment- Triangular 
ing with triangular ties to some extent with- ^'®^- 
in the -last tv/o years, endeavoring in this 
way to effect a saving in the total consump- 
tion of timber for this purpose. The ties are 
cut with a 12-in top face and are 7 in. deep. 



114 



The Roadmasteks' Assistant, 



Tie Additional bearing surface is thus obtained 

insulation. ^^^^ f^^j. ^j^g ^^^ ^^ ^^^ f^,^^ ^^^^ j^g rJ^^Q 

results obtained so far are said to be good. 
Where metal ties are used in conjunction 
Avith the electric track circuit it is necessary 
to prevent the electric current from passing 
from one rail to another bj means of the 
cross ties. This can only be done by some 
method of insulation. Fig. 91 illustrates 
one of the methods. Here there are some 
fibrous sheets interposed between the rail 




Sectional View. 

Fig. 91 — Method of Fastening Rail to Metal Tie with 

Fibre Insulation. 



Lining 
ties. 



and all of the surrounding metal; since the 
fibre is a non-conductor of electricity, the 
rail becomes what is called "insulated." 

A certain side of the track should be fixed 
upon for lining the ties, if the road is single 
track. On a double track road the ties 
should be lined always on the outside of the 
track except on curves where they should 
always be lined on the inside. 



Cross Ties. 115 

The track jack should be used as much as Track 
possible for putting in ties, since it saves ^"*^'^*- 
the labor of a man who would otherwise be 
engaged in holding up a tie for another man 
to tamp. It is particularly provoking to 
an ambitious roadmaster to go over his 
track and see men on every section lazily 
roosting on a crowbar. 

Late in the fall the roadmaster should, in countini 
the company of each section foreman, make *'«*• 
a careful examination of his track for the 
purpose of ascertaining the number, kind 
and location of the ties which must be re- 
newed during the next year. When this 
location is known the new ties can be dis- 
tributed at any time during the winter. 

Unfortunately, ties in any section of track Removing 
do not all decay together. The practice of *»©«• 
removing all at once, quite desirable on 
some accounts, may easily result in serious 
waste; and in this connection it should be 
remembered that ties made from different 
kinds of wood should not be mixed in the 
track, since they will decay in different 
lengths of time. 

On main track, from 14 to 18 ties, depend- spacing 
ing on their size, should be laid under a ^'«s- 
30-ft. rail, and on side track from 11 to 13 
ties. If the ties are large there will be less 
than this number, and if they are small 
there will be more. They should be evenly 
spaced with reference to their bearing edges 
(not their centers) and sufficient room for 
tamping should be left between each two 
ties. For joint ties in main track this dis- 
tance should be from 8 in. to 10 in., not 
more, and for intermediate ties from 10 in. 
to 14 in. The largest ties should be reserved 
for placing under the joints. 

Ties should be tamped hard at the ends Tamping 
and for about a foot inside the rails, but t'^s. 
in the middle less tamping should be done; 
just enough to solidifv the earth and hold 



116 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

the end tamping in place. The shocks to 
which a tie is subjected, all come under the 
rail at which point the tie will first settle. 
If the tie is tamped hard in the middle, it, 
in time, becomes center-bound and rocks, 
which is bad for the track, and disagreeable 
to the passengers. Neither should ties be 
tamped too high at the joints in the ex- 
pectation that they will gradually settle 
down to the proper level of the track. A 
joint which is too high is as injurious to 
the rail, and has as bad an effect on the 
train as a low joint. 
Time to As has been said in a previous chapter, 
renew. -j-j^g work of putting in ties should be com- 
menced in the spring as soon as the most 
important of the ditching has been com- 
pleted, and ought, if it is a possible thing, to 
be finished by the first of July. This is a 
rule which cannot be too strongly insisted 
upon. 
Disposal of After the decayed ties have been taken 
decayed from the track they should be disposed of 
*'*^' promptly and not be left to disfigure the 

right-of-way. They may be burned on the 
spot, taken to the nearest engine house to 
be used in starting fires in the locomotives 
or the people living in the neighborhood 
may be permitted to haul them away, but 
before they are disposed of in any way they 
must have been carefully inspected by the 
roadmaster. This should never be omitted, 
since it is the only possible means of check- 
ing the care with which the section fore- 
men select the ties for removal. It is of 
course best to utilize them if possible, and 
there are many ways in which to do it. 
They make good temporary retaining walls 
when placed into the bank, and if laid side 
by side across very muddy roads form a 
good substitute for "corduroy." If no better 
use presents itself, they can be piled around 
stumps and burned, thus "killing two birds 



Cboss Ties. 117 

with one stone.'^ In any event, they should 
not be left scattered along the track but 
should be gathered into neat piles at the 
close of each day's work. 

In yards, in the neighborhood of switches, use of 
or where the track heaves, cross ties are p®^*- 
often rapidly destroyed by the frequent 
drawing and re-driving of spikes which, 
each time it is done, leaves an opening for 
the water to settle in and exposes the center 
of the tie to decay. To prevent this, a supply 
of pegs a little larger than a spike, should 
be kept on hand for filling these holes and 
should be used where a spike is drawn from 
a tie which is to remain in the track. The 
pegs are best made by machinery, but if the 
supply should become exhausted they may 
be split out of good timber at the hand-car 
house on rainy days. The practice of driv- 
ing a pick into a tie on any and every occa- 
sion for testing or moving it J5 a bad one. 
It makes a hole in which water will settle 
and start a center of decay. If it is ever 
really necessary to drive a pick into a tie, 
a sound peg should be driven tightly into 
the hole and cut, not broken off at the sur- 
face. 

Shimming is a makeshift at the best and shims. 
is apt to be greatly overdone, often to a 
dangerous extent. It is almost entirely due 
to bad drainage, and to correct this is the 
only proper course. If, however, circum- 
stances require shims, they should be made 
and used in the right way. Hard wood is 
the only suitable material from which to 
make shims, white oak preferably, and they 
should be sawed and bored by machinery; 
they then are of the best form and cost the 
least money. Those more than 1 in. and less 
than 2 in. in thickness should have four 
holes, two for the rail spikes and two for 
spiking the shim to the tie. All shims more 
than 2 in. thick should have the ends 



118 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



5piking 
ties. 



Level and 
gage. 



beveled with two holes bored in each end 
for spiking them to the tie. For this pur- 
pose, long boat-spikes should be used. 

In spiking ties the arrangement of the 
spikes should be invariably as shown in Fig. 
136, with both inside spikes on the same side 
of the tie and with both outside spikes on 
the other side of the tie. If the spiking is 
done in any other way the tie will twist in- 
stead of remaining always at right angles 
to the rail. Although apparently a small 
matter this is really of much importance. 
Driving spikes properly requires some skill 
and is more often badly done than well 
done. The gage should always be used and 
the spike stood up straight beside the rail 
and touching it, then driven down straight, 
not leaned in either direction to suit the 
convenience of the trackman. 

Any work which tends to disturb the bal- 
last or track should be performed with the 
assistance of a track level, and the work of 
putting in ties should prove no exception to 
this rule. The level should be moved from 
place to place where the men are tamping 
and no track should be considered finished 
until it has been finally tested with the 
level and gage and is known to be right. 



CHAPTER X. 

Rails. 

riie so-called American Society of Civil Early rail 
Engineers' standard rail-section was adopt- defects, 
ed by that society in 1893 and is now in al- 
most universal use in the United States. 
This design of rail-section was proposed by 
a committee which had made a long and 
thorough investigation of the causes of the 
numerous failures which had occurred with 
steel rails up to that time. The investiga- 
tion showed that the form of rail then in 
general use was at fault and the aim in mak- 
ing the new section was to secure a better 
distribution of metal and thus overcome the 
grave defect of having to finish the rail too 
hot resulting in a rail, the head of which had 
been insufficiently worked or worse still,, 
had received its' last working at a high 
heat. The same faulty design caused the 
rail to cool quicker in the flange and web 
than in the head, which caused unequal ex- 
pansion in cooling and twisted and warped 
the rails on the hot beds, at the same time 
setting up indeterminate but manifestly 
severe internal stresses in the metal. 

Fig. 92 shows the form of Am. Soc. C. E. Rail 
section and the table accompanying it gives ®®^*'**"** 
the dimensions for the different weights of 
rail. For the purposes of comparison the 
standard 80-lb. rail section of 1887 is shown 
in Fig. 93, and also the Am. Soc. 0. E. 
80-lb. section superimposed on it. The most 
important difference is in the general form. 



120 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 



mOTHOFHF^iD 




k— — mOTH 0FBA5E- 

FiG. 92 — Am. Soc. C E. Standard Rail Section. 



DIMENSIONS OF STANDARD RAIL SECTIONS. 



Pounds 


Height 


Width 


Width 


ness 


Depth 


Height 


ness 


per 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


yard. 


Rail. 


Base. 


Head. 


Web. 


Head. 


Web. 


Flange 


100^ 


5% 


5% 


2% 


V16 


l^Ve* 


3V64 


^V32 


•95' 


5Vl6 


5Vl6 


2^Vi6 


V16 


1*V64 


2°V64 


'V,« 


90 


5% 


5% 


2% 


Vie 


1^V32 


2-/64 


^Vet 


85 


5Vi6 


5Vl6 


2Vi6 


V16 


1^VC4 


2% 


"/« 


m 


5 


5 


21/2 


^V64 


172 


2% 


78 


75 


41V16 


41V16 


2^5/32 


"/32 


l^Ve* 


23Ve4 


'V33 


70 


4% 


4% 


2Vl6 


^V64 


l"/32 


2^5/32 


^/l6 


65 


4Vl6 


4Vi« 


2^732 


72 


IV32 


2% 


»/as 


^60 


41/4 


41A 


2% 


^V64 


IV32 


2"/64 


*V«4 


55 


4Vl6 


4Vl6 


21/4 


^■V32 


l"/64 


2"/64 


^V32 


;50 


378 


3% 


278 


V16 


178 


2^/l6 


"/16 


45 


3"/l6 


3^Via 


2 


=V64 


IV16 


1^V32 


*V33 


40 


3y2 


31/2 


1% 


"/e. 


1V64 


l=Va* 


% 



Rails. 



121 



In the newer section, the web has been *^***. 
thickened somewhat and increased in depth **^*'*'"^' 
while the head has been broadened out and 
made much shallower. The base has also 
been widened out. The increase in the 



"r 



^IH 



^^..y \ 



1"' 


'7i"\ 


^'"^■^ 






80-lb. Rail of 188 


7. 




?'"" 1 






Comparison of Old and New Sections. 
Pig, 93 — Old and New Rail Sections. 



height of the rail has greatly strengthened 
it as a girder and the increased width in the 
head provides a larger surface for carrying 
the heavy modern rolling stock which rap- 
idly destroys the earlier forms of rail by 



122 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

Maoufac= Hterallj squeezing the metal from the top 

*"'*• of the narrower heads. 

The introduction of the Bessemer process 
revolutionized rail making and practically 
drove the iron rails, formerly used, out of 
service except for relaying purposes. The 
early rails made by the Bessemer process 
contained from 0.25 to 0.35 per cent, of car- 
bon but the tendency has been to increase 
the hardness and prevent the heavy wear 
under present-day loads so that now rails 
are made which contain from 0.55 to 0.60 
per cent, of carbon. The Bessemer process 
is not suited for making steel of this com- 
position and as a consequence the open- 
hearth process has come to be considered 
the best practice for making rail steel. 
Mckel steel rails have also been tried to a 
limited extent and on account of their ex- 
treme hardness and elasticity have been 
found to be particularly valuable on curves 
where the rail wear is heavy. Great im- 
provements have been made in recent years 
in rolling rails and these have all been 
along the line of reducing the finishing 
temperature and increasing the work put 
into the reduction of the billet to the fin- 
ished rail. The Am. Soc. C. E. section gives 
almost equal amounts of metal in the head 
and base and the uneven contraction in cool- 
ing is avoided to a great extent. As a con- 
sequence of the increased working and the 
lower temperature at which it is carried out, 
the density, toughness and reliability of the 
metal has been greatly increased. 

McKenna A method of re-rolliug old and worn rails 

process, knowu as the McKenna process has recently 
been introduced with good results. The old 
rails are put through a train of rolls which 
compacts the metal in the head and base 
and reduces the weight somewhat by 
elongating the whole length of the rail. 
The illustration, Fig. 94, shows two speci- 



Rails. 



123 



mens of worn 72-lb. rail which have been re- 
duced by this process to 65-lb. rails. The 
quality of the metal seems to be greatly 




Fig. 94 — Sections of Rail Re-Rolled by the McKenna 
Process. 

improved by this additional working and in 
every sense rails treated in this way are re- 
.newed and not simply re-formed. 

Several special rail sections differing wide- Haarmann= 
ly from the Am. Soc. C. E. standard section ^'^^or 
have been devised with a view of increasing ''®''*" 
the eijficiency of the joints. One of these, 
the Haarmann- Victor rail, is shown in Figs. 
95 to 98. It is made of unsymetrical section 




SECTION AT A.B. 



95 — Haarmann-Vietor 

Rail. 
Section at Joint. 



SECTION AT C D. 

Fig. 96 — Haarmann-Vietor 
Rail. 
Section at Center. 



to allow one-half of the head and base to be 
cut aw^ay for about 10 in. at each end with- 
out removing any of the web. The webs are 
overlapped at the joints and are further re- 



124 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



1 

o- 


ih . 


-- 




o 
[o 

o 
jo 

o 

o 


= 


- 


-^ \ 





e. 



e 



■m 



I 

ff 



I 
I 



V 



r:) 



4 



w 



-m 



Rails. 125 

inforced with angle-bars as shown in Figs. Haarmann- 
95, 97 and 98. These rails are about 8 in. V'^^o*" 
high and the base is about 8 in. wide and in *^^' ^' 
the experimental stretches of track in Ger- 
many where these rails were laid, they were 
embedded in the ballast without the 
use of cross ties. The two lines of 
rails are tied together at frequent inter- 
vals with tie-straps as shown in Figs. 95 
to 98. The reports of its performance 
state that a record of ten years' service 
proves that the cost of maintenance in Ger- 
many did not exceed |20 per mile per year, 
while the stiffness of the splice and the con- 
tinuity of support secure good surface. It 
is evident that nothing but the best con- 
struction throughout and the most thorough 
drainage can be used in this method of lay- 
ing track, which seems to have given good 
results in experimental service. 

Another method along this same line is Duff's 
one devised and put into experimental ser- system, 
vice by Samuel E. Duff. The rail, of stand- 
ard Am. Soc. C. E. section, is mounted on 
top of a continuous inverted trough made of 
rolled steel. This trough is made up of sec- 
tions about 7^ ft. long and overlapped at the 
ends in such a way as to leave a smooth and 
unbroken bearing surface for the rail. Tie- 
bars are inserted at intervals to maintain 
the gage and the rails are held in place by 
clips. Adjustment on curves is provided for 
by the slip joints between sections of the 
track. Experiments made with this type of 
rail support show that there is little diffi- 
culty in tamping ballast under the troughs 
and the amount of labor necessary to keep 
the track in good line and surface is less 
than that required for track laid on cross 
ties. 

Long rails are a decided advantage and Long 
45-ft., 60-ft. and even 90-ft. rails are now be- rails, 
ing laid in track. They have, respectively. 



126 The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 

only I, i and ^ as many joints as a 30-ft. 
rail and the expense of maintenance of 
joints is decreased correspondingly, 
continu- Practically continuous rails have been 
ous rails, gucccssf ully used in this country. The idea, 
which was patented by a section-foreman 
named Noonan, seems to have been tried 
first on what is now a branch of the Nor- 
folk & Western. The rails were bolted to- 
gether as tightly as possible and their ends 
were butted, allowing no room for expan- 
sion. Koughly speaking, steel expands 1 in. 
in every 100 ft. with every increase in 
temperature of 100 deg. Fahrenheit. It has 
usually been believed that the rail should 
be able to move through the joint for if it 
could not it might buckle, destroy the gage 
of the track and cause a derailment, but in 
the light of some experiments made on the 
Michigan Central by the late Mr. Torrey, its 
chief engineer at one time, some doubt 
exists as to whether it would not be better 
to combine the movement of the several 
joints at particular points considerable dis- 
tances apart, in the form of special expan- 
sion joints. The experiments indicate that 
the movement of the rail is not so great as 
might be expected under the changes of 
temperature which take place. After four 
years of service a stretch of track which had 
riveted rails 500 ft. long, seemed to be in as 
good shape as regards line and surface as 
any piece of track on the road. The method 
followed was to insert split points in the 
track some hundreds of feet apart, in the 
manner suggested in Chapter XII for taking 
up the movement in creeping track and to 
rivet the intermediate rail ends together in 
such a way as to make a practically con- 
tinuous rail. 



CHAPTER XI. 

Bail Fastenings. 

There are many special and patented spikes, 
forms of spikes, varying slightly from each 
other, but none of them seem to have ever 
come into favor to the extent of superseding 
the old-fashioned spikes. The lag screw has 
been extensively used in Europe and in the 
opinion of some trackmen in this country it 
makes a better fastening than the spike 
when it is used in connection with a suitable 
clip to hold down the rail. 



y 



Fig. 99. Fig. 100. Fig. 101. 

Lag Screws and Spikes for Holding Rails. 



There are also large numbers of nut locks, ^ut 
many of which are patterned after the 
^^Verona." The original and the latest 
Verona patterns are shown in Figs. 102 and 
103 while Figs. 104 to 109 illustrate varia- 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 



Nut 
locks. 



Fig. 102 — Original Fig. 103 — Verona. 

Verona. 




Fig. 104 — Eureka. Fig. 105— American. 




Fig. 106— Harvey. Fig. 107 — National. 




Fig. 108 — Excelsior. 




Fig. 109 — Excelsior Double Nut Lock. 



Spring Nut Locks. 




Rail Fastenings. 129 



Nut 
locks. 



Fig. 110 — Spiral Nut Lock. 




Fig. Ill — Columbia Lock Nut. 



130 The Roadmastees' Assistant. 




Pig. 112 — Jones & Bayliss Lock Nut. 




Fig. 113— Oliver Grip Nut. 



Nut locks, tions of it. The first Verona nut lock, Fig. 
102, was formed of a square steel rod, bent 
into a circle, with the ends cut diagonally 
and then forced a little apart. It acts in 
two ways : When the nut is screwed up tight 
the nut lock acts as a spring, forcing the 
threads of the nut and bolt together, while 
its sharp ends form cutting edges which 
bear respectively against the splice-bar and 
the nut and oppose the effort of the nut to 
revolve. In its new shape, one of the ends 
is prolonged, which when it strikes a pro- 
jection, acts as a stop to prevent the nut 
lock from turning. An entirely different ar- 
rangement is shown in Fig. 110. In this, 



Rail Fastenings. 131 

the nut lock is put on outside of the nut and 
as it follows the thread with a tight grip, 
it prevents the nut from unscrewing. The 
Columbia nut lock, Fig. Ill, depends on a 
still different principle. The nut is made 
in two pieces with pyramidal bearing sur- 
faces one on the other; and the inside piece 
is split. As the outside of the nut forces 
down on the split piece it forces it against 
the threads which are gripped tightly. In 
the lock nut shown in Fig. 112, the nut is 
split in such a way as to stagger the thread 
slightly when the nut reaches a bearing and 
thus prevents it from unscrewing. Although 
not of the same class as the lock nuts pre- 
viously^ described, the device shown in Fig. 
113 comes under the same general head. It 
differs from the ordinary nut only in having 
the three outside threads made with a 
slightly different angle from the others and 
this causes the nut to bind against the bolt. 

The illustrations, Figs. 114 to 122, show a Joints. 
few of the many forms of joint fastenings. 
Theoretically, the rail at the joint, in order 
to secure a perfect track, should be just as 
flexible and as strong as the rest of the rail. 
So far, however, the fault has been chiefly 
that the joints have been too weak. The 
requisites in a joint are, in the order of their 
importance, strength, ease of application, 
few number of parts and cheapness. 
Cheapness is put last because a poor joint 
at a less price, will prove more costly than 
a higher priced good joint. Few number of 
parts is a very desirable feature since the 
more parts a joint has, the more there are 
to become loose and get lost and the longer 
it takes to put them together. Ease of ap- 
plication is also a requisite because the 
operation of renewing rails is usually done 
in a great hurry and at a time when every 
moment counts. 

It would be impossible within the limits 



132 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 






23^ 




M 



n 



□ 



□ 



□ 




i 



Rail Fasten^IiXgs. 133 




134 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 





Rail Fastenings. 



13& 



d. 




136 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 




Rail Fastenixgs. 



137 




138 The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 



Joint 

<a5ten== 

iags. 



of this book to give as much space as would 
be required to illustrate anything like all 
of the various joint fastenings which are 
even now being experimented with. A 
large proportion of them are foredoomed 
failures and many of the others will never 
meet with any great success. 

The six-hole angle bar is probably in more 
general use than all other forms of rail fas- 
tenings combined but it has certain ele- 
ments of weakness which cannot be over- 
come and some form of continuous joint 
seems to be absolutely necessary for track 
subjected to modern heavy loading. Fig. 
114 shows a typical one of these joints, both 
as to its length and the distance between 
the bolts. These angle-bars vary consider- 
ably in total length, from 32 in. to 42 in., and 
in extreme cases even less and more. A 
comparatively small proportion are used as 
suspended joints (that is with two ties) but 
this defeats one of their chief advantages 
and practically places them in the class of 
4-hole angle-bars. It is quite evident that 
the useful effect must diminish in propor- 
tion as the bolts are further from the junc- 
tion between the rails, unless, as with the 
three-tie joint, the bars are reinforced by 
the suport of another tie. No spike-slot 
should be placed at or very near the center, 
since this is the point of greatest strain and 
it is here that substantially all of the frac- 
tures occur. One of the best informed and 
most careful investigators of track mate- 
rials has stated that "the angle-bar should 
be high in carbon and low in phosphorous, 
so that it may be very stiff and elastic. The 
mild steel splice takes a ^set' ^fter which it 
holds the rail-ends down, causing a perma- 
nent low joint which cannot be corrected 
until new splices are put in." 

Exclusive of the six-hole angle-bar, the 
joints here shown may be divided into three 



Rail Fastenings. 139 

general classes: Joints having a base-plate; Joint 
those having a side reinforcement and those ^astea- 
forming a deep girder. Some of the joints '"*^*' 
might be included in two of the above 
classes as for example the Churchill joint 
shown in Fig. 122, which has both the base 
plate and the deep girder. Only one joint 
with the side reinforcement is shown. 

The "Continuous," Fig. 120, and the "Ordi- 
nary Thomson," Fig. 121, are very similar to 
each other and differ from the ordinary 
four-hole angle-bar only in the extension 
under the rail to form a base plate. The 
"Weber," Fig. 119, has a wooden filling 
block added to the ordinary angle-bar which, 
it is claimed, increases the elasticity of the 
joint and prevents the parts from working 
loose. An ingenious method of preventing 
this is embodied in the "Wolhaupter," Fig. 
116, in which the bearing surfaces are all 
inclined toward the center and, by tighten- 
ing up the joint bolts, the parts can be kept 
always tight against the rail and an almost 
indefinite amount of wear taken up. 

The "Barschall," Fig. 115, is the only rep- 
resentative of the side reinforcement joints. 
An outside rail is provided to carry the 
worn treads of wheels and to relieve the 
main rails of the shock of passing from one 
rail onto the next. This joint is expensive 
but it is also proportionally stiff and ef- 
fective. 

The "Churchill" joint, Fig. 122, is the 
earliest joint of its type and was the fore- 
runner of the "Bonzano," Fig. 118, and the 
"Thomson 100 Per Cent," Fig. 117. In all 
three of these, the joint plates are made 
deeper under the break in the rails in order 
to give additional stiffness at the weakest 
point in the joint. The "Bonzano" and "100 
Per Cent" joints have been thoroughly test- 
ed in service with uniformly good results. 

Another method of overcoming the de- 



140 The Roadmastees' Assistant. 

Special fects of the ordinary angle-bar splice with 

rail ends, square rail ends is shown in Figs. 123 and 

124. Fig. 123 shows the Curtis tapered rail 

end in which the ends of the rails are 

tapered down and the adjoining ends are 




1 I 



Fig. 123— Curtis Tapered Rail End. 

over-lapped in order to transfer the wheel 
loads gradually from one rail to another. 
The mitered rail end shown in Fig. 124 is in- 
tended to accomplish the same result but 
it has not proved to be a success, although 
for a time it was extensively used on the 
Lehigh Valley. 




joints. 



Fig. 124— Mitered Rail End. 

Cast and Welded and cast rail joints have also 
^fj^®^ been experimented with, principally on 
street railroad track. Welded joints are 
made with a portable electric welding plant 
mounted on a car, which heats the adjacent 
ends of the rails to the melting point by 
means of an electric current and the two 
rails are then brought together under pres- 
sure and welded, thus forming a continuous 
rail. Oast joints are made with a portable 
cupola for melting iron and a series of 
molds which are clamped around the rail 
joints. The webs at the ends of the rails 



Rail Fastenings. 141 

are drilled with a number of holes and the weided 
molten iron is poured into the molds making Joints, 
a solid casting through and around the joint 
on both sides of the rail. When the iron has 
cooled sufficiently the molds are removed 
and the rough projections of the joint are 
ground off with a portable grinding ma- 
chine. There is one serious objection to 
both of these methods and that is the diffi- 
culty and expense of removing such rail 
Avhen it is broken or worn out. 



CHAPTER XII. 

Teack Work. 

Rails are usually received from the mill Counting 
on flat or gondola cars and should be care- f"** *"™' 
f ullj counted at the time of unloading for *"^ "' *' 
the purpose of detecting any error in the 
shipping list. The brand is always on the 
same side of the rail, as it lies in the car. 
Since many railroads do and all railroads 
should require the rails to be laid with the 
brands either all on the inside or all on the 
outside of the rail when in the track, the 
cars should point in the right direction 
when the rail is taken out to be unloaded. 
If the turning of the cars (when they point 
in the wrong direction) is not done, each 
rail must be separately turned in order to 
get the brand on the proper side. In any 
event, a string of rails should always have 
the brand on the same side, because the top 
and bottom surfaces of the rail are not al- 
ways parallel, owing to an imperfect ad- 
justment of the rolls in the mill; therefore, 
if the rails are not laid uniformly a rough 
track is apt to result. 

Rails should be unloaded with great care unloading 
so that they will sustain the least possible rails, 
damage in the process. The dangers likely 
to occur are the breaking and kinking of the 
rail. The breaking of a rail in unloading 
may be caused by carelessness, but on the 
other hand may result in the detection of a 
flaw which would have rendered it unfit for 
use in the track. The dropping of a rail on 



144 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

Unloading its end OF among a lot of other rails is very 
'**^*- likely to break or bend it in such a way as 
to render it practically useless, but when it 
is squarely dropped on the bare ground, the 
fact that it breaks is sufficient proof that it 
never should have gone into the main track. 
There are a number of methods of unload- 
ing rails from cars, some of which have cer- 
tain advantages over the others. One of the 
simplest methods uses two drag ropes with 
a hook at each end. Each rope is handled 
by a gang of men, who attach it to the track 
at one end (by placing the hook under the 
rail) and insert the hook on the other end 
of the rope in one of the bolt holes of a rail 
on the car. The train is moved forward 
slowly, the rope dragging the rail from the 
car, while the men prevent it from dropping 
suddenly by receiving it on hand-spikes be- 
fore the care has quite passed from under it. 
It is then carefully lowered to the ground. 
The two gangs alternate in their move- 
ments, one gang being engaged in lowering 
a rail to the ground, while the other is at- 
taching its rope to a rail on the car. Of 
course it is only possible to use this method 
when the rails are loaded on flat cars, or on 
cars with openings in the ends. A second 
method uses a pair of hangers, Fig. 125, in 




Fig. 125— Rollers for Unloading Rails. 



Track Work. 145 

Avliicli rollers are mounted and which are unloading: 
hung over the side of the car, one hanger '*"*• 
having a greater drop than the other. The 
rail is laid on the rollers by a gang of men 
in the car and by reason of its slope, the rail 
slides easily to the ground where it is re- 
ceived by another gang. This arrangement 
is suited to any car without a roof and also 
permits, as does the first method, the rails 
to be unloaded without injury while the 
train is in motion. A third method, Fig. 
126, is much like the preceding, except that 




Fig. 126 — Chute for Unloading Rails. 

a chute is used instead of the two hanging 
rollers. It is not necessary to provide a 
gang to lower the rail to the ground, since 
the upper end is supported by the chute at 
all times during the passage. 

The Ware rail-unloading device is prob- 
ably as efficient as any of the others. It con- 
sists of a gallows-frame which supports one 
or sometimes two air hoists. These hoists 
pick up the rail and raise it to a height suf- 
ficient to let it slide through a chute to the 
ground. Compressed air to operate the 
hoists is taken from the air-brake train-line 



146 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



and four men are enough to operate each 
one. 

Unloading rails on skids over the side of 
the car is hardly possible under ordinary 
circumstances unless time is of no import- 
ance. 

In re-laying rails it is necessary that 
every preparation be made to facilitate the 
work before breaking the main track. The 
rails should be .laid end to end, at least par- 
tially bolted, and the spacing should be 
carefully looked after with regard to the 
joints on the other side of the track. 

In separating the rail ends from each 

other, iron shims must be used which should 

expansion. ^^^^ .^ thickuess from i in. to | in. During 

cold weather the f-in. shim should be used 

and the J-in. for average temperatures, but 



Re=laying 
rails. 



Spacing 
for 










SID£ 
VIEW 







Fig. 127 — Joint-Spacing Gage for Laying Rails. 



Track Work. 



147 



connec- 
tion. 



in ordinary summer weather J-in. is quite 
sufficient, while on days when the thermo- 
meter goes above 90 deg. Fahrenheit no 
opening at all is necessary. Pieces of wood 
should not be used for this spacing. Fig. 
127 illustrates a convenient implement 
which can be made in any blacksmith shop. 
The three thicknesses are provided in the 
form of arms set around a stem. 

For a temporary connection with the old Temporary 
rail a split point should be kept on hand, \ 
which can be bolted to the end of the new ' 
rail in a moment and spiked up against the 
old rail or vice versa, when it is desired to 
let some train go by, or to ciose up for the 
night. 

Where trains are close together, the work 
of tearing out the old rail and laying the 
new rail should be carried on at the same 
time, so as to make the most of what in- 
terval there is between trains. In this way 
and by keeping the split point at the head 
of the gang, the track can be kept open 
until the last minute. 

If the new and old rails are of different 




Fig. 128 — Hawk's Offset Splice. 




Fig. 129 — Fisher Ofeset Splice. 



148 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



onset 

splice. 





Track Work. 

heights, "offset splices" (of which several 
kinds are shown in Figs. 128 to 131) should 
be provided for the joint at which the con- 
nection is to be made. 




SECTION ON A. B. 



Fig. 131 — Weber Offset Splice. 



SECTION CN C. D. 



When the new rail has a wider base than 
that which it replaces, the ties must be pre- 
pared to receive it, for the old rail will have 
cut in to a certain extent, leaving a shoulder 
which must be trimmed down before the 
new rail is laid. This can be done by a spe- 
cial gang of men provided with adzes, who 
will follow the gang which is throwing out 
the old rail. 

In preparing for the removal of the old speed of 
rail, most of the inside spikes and some of t^'^'^s. 
the outside spikes may be drawn and trains 
may still be permitted to pass at a low rate 
of speed; but care should be taken to locate 
caution signals or men with green flags, suf- 
ficiently far from the work which is going 
on, to warn approaching trains that the 
track is not safe for high speed; while, if 
there is any doubt as to the safety of the 
track even for low speed, red flags must be 
sent out. 

The best period for relaying rail is that Time to 
which immediately precedes the opening of re=!ay. 
spring work. This, however, cannot always 
be done in actual practice, since rail must 
usually be laid when it is received, or very 
shortly after, and this will be at different 
times in the year. But no matter at what 
season, it is most important, when new rail 
is put into the track, that the joints shall be 
promptly attended to. Where old rail has 



pieces. 



material. 



150 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

been in for some time the ends are apt to 
be bent down and the ties not level; con- 
sequently, where all of the ties cannot be 
raised immediately to support the rail, 
shims must be used in such a way as to give 
it an even bearing on all the ties. 

Short The ordinary length of rails is 30 ft. or 60 

ft., but among all lots of new rails some 
shorter pieces will be found which are very 
useful in maintaining the proper distance 
between joints on the opposite sides of the 
track, while going around curves, or past 
frogs and switches. By a judicious use of 
these short pieces almost all cutting of rails 
may be avoided. 

Care of The bolts, uuts, uut locks, etc., necessary 

for re-laying rail, should be carefully dis- 
tributed immediately before they are need- 
ed and should not be thrown around helter- 
skelter to be lost or buried in the ballast. 
Men will not be careful of material which 
does not belong to them unless they are 
closely watched, and this is a matter which 
never should be lost sight of in doing any 
kind of track work. 

Broken rpj^^ prevailing practice on almost every 

important road in the country is now to lay 
rails with broken joints and not with joints 
opposite to each other. Results in practice 
show that trains ride more easily and with 
less noise over track laid in this way and 
that the cost of maintenance is less. 

Track The increased height of the modern heavy 

rail sections has made it possible to place 
some of the nuts on the inside of the track 
without danger of having them cut off by 
the flanges of deeply worn tires. The best 
practice is to stagger the bolts, that is, put 
half of the nuts on the inside and half on 
the outside. In case a wheel becomes de- 
railed, only a part of the nuts can then be 
broken off' and the joint while weakened is 
not completely broken. Track bolts should 



joints. 



bolts. 



Track Work. 



151 



be regularly tightened, for when only 
slightly loose they do not unscrew so rapid- 
ly as when loose enough to receive a con- 
siderable motion from the passing trains; 
that is, the looser they are the more rapidly 
they shake off. Square nuts are preferable 
to hexagon nuts since they do not wear out 
at the corners. 

The amount of super-elevation which etevation 
should be given to the outer rail on curves on curves. 
is a difficult matter to settle and it is prob- 
able that no practicable rule, which can be 
applied to every case, will ever be arrived 
at. The three points to be considered are, 
the general character of the traffic, the max- 
imum speed of trains and the degree of 
curve. If it were not for the first it would 
be possible to compromise the requirements 
of the last two elements very satisfactorily. 
But it is evident that to arrange a track 
for a speed of 60 miles an hour, around 
curves of 5 deg. or 6 deg., would be inad- 
visable if there were but one or two trains^ 
to use the track at that speed. An average 
is therefore the nearest that can usually be 
arrived at and the simplest is also the best 
rule for this purpose. Three-fourths inch 
for each degree of curve with a maximum of 
6 in. is easy enough to remember and is a 
safe rule. The result would be as follows: 



Super-Elevation for a Speed ( 


w 


10 


Miles 


PEE HOOE. 




Degree of Cnrva, - 


i 


1 


H 


2 


n 


3 


H 


4 


H 


5 


54 


6 


H 


7 


n 


% 


Elevation in Inches, 


1 


1 


H 


li 


n 


^ 


2| 


3 


3| 


3| 


H 


44 


41 


5i 


H 


6 



If the rail is to be elevated for still higher 
speeds, the rate of increase may be put at 1 
in. per degree of curve, that is 1 in. for a 
1 deg. curve, 2 in. for a 2 deg. curve and so 



152 The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 

Elevation on. It would not be safe to advise a high- 
on curves, qj. elevation than 6 in. for any curve except 
under rare conditions. If the rail, ties and 
ballast are respectively as heavy, sound and 
deep as the best service demands, then and 
only then is it advisable to exceed 6 in. of 
super-elevation. Eight inches is in any case 
the maximum. 

The only safe way to test a curve for rid- 
ing qualities is to ride around it. If on en- 
tering a curve, the engine gives a back- 
breaking twist or if upon leaving the curve 
the rear car slams against the outer rail in 
a crack-the-whip fashion it is pretty good 
evidence that something is radically wrong- 
even if the curve has been put up according 
to an authorized rule. 
Tapering Where the curve is not "eased," as will be 
off. explained later on, the elevation on the 

curve must be carried back on the tangent 
and the commonest distance is 100 ft. for 
each inch of elevation. This, however, would 
not be possible at reverse curves where 
there is little or no connecting tangent, in 
which case the rate must be shortened to 
suit the conditions. 
Equi!ib= A dcvicc to indicate the difference in level 
ristat. between the two rails is shown in Fig. 132. 
It is called the "equilibristat" and is the 
invention of Mr. J. B. Whittemore, Chief 
Engineer of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. 
Paul. It consists of a glass tube bent as 
shown and partly filled with mercury, 
mounted on a card graudated in inches in 
two scales both above and below the zero 
(level) mark. The device is mounted in a 
car so that when standing on a perfectly 
level piece of track the mercury stands at 
zero in both tubes. It promptly indicates 
any marked difference in level of the two 
rails with considerable accuracy but is not 
sensitive enough to show minor rough spots. 
Trackmen are seldom required to attend 



Track Work. 



153 




Fig. 132— The Equilibristat. 



to the siiper-eieyatlon on bridges since the Elevation 
work requires more accuracy than the force <^". 
is able to command with the ordinary sec- ''*"*^s®^- 
tion house tools. In consequence, special 
ties, sawed to the necessary taper are 
usually provided; or else substantial shims, 
of the same length as the ties, also sawed 
to the required taper are placed between the 
rail and tie and spiked or bolted to the lat- 
ter. If the shims are used, they should be 
at least 1 in. wider than the tie, in order 
that they shall overhang ^ in. on each side 
and prevent moisture from penetrating and 
resting between the shim and the tie. The 
ordinary shim used on heaving track should 
never be placed under the outer rail of the 
curve on a bridge. This is because the two 
rails of the track will not then lie in the 
same plane and the wheel-treads will con- 
sequently roll on the edges of the rails in- 
stead of directly on the tops. 



154 The Roadmasteks' AssISTA^'T. 

Curve The only satisfactory and proper method 

easements, which is applicable to all commencements 
of curvature, is "easement." This is done by 
inserting what is called a "transition curve" 
between the tangent and the main curve. 
The transition curve begins at the straight 
line with no curvature whatever and grad- 
ually increases in sharpness until, when it 
joins the main curve, the two have the same 
rate of curvature. " By this plan, it is possi- 
ble to begin the super-elevation at the point 
where the tangent joins the transition 
curve, gradually increasing the super-eleva- 
tion as the curve becomes sharper. 
widenins It is sometimes necessary to widen the 
gage. gage of the track; this happens frequently 
at switches and on side tracks which are 
used by consolidation or other locomotives 
which have a long wheel-base. Two inches 
is the most that the track should be widened 
and when this is done, guard rails should be 
placed close inside the outer rail of the 
curve and close outside the inner rail, in 
order that the blind drivers of consolidation 
engines may not run off the track. There 
are many things which would qualify any 
rule for guidance in this matter, but the 
principal one is the width of driving wheels, 
which may vary between 5J in. and 6^ in., 
so that what is perfectly feasible on one 
railroad may be impossible on another, 
owing to the difference in the width of the 
tires. Although it is hardly necessary to 
widen the gage on main tracks (owing to the 
comparative slightness of the curvature) it 
is nevertheless the practice on some lines. 
A fairly average rate for this purpose would 
be 1-16 in. per degree of curve, increasing 
by jumps of 2 deg. That is, i in. for a 2 deg. 
curve, i in. for a 4 deg. curve, f in. for a 6 
deg. curve, etc. 
Ra" Rail braces, Figs. 133 and 134, should be 

braces. ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ outside of both rails at curves 



Track Work. 155 

of more than 3 deg., and at all other places Rail 
where the track is likely to spread. On the traces, 
easy curves, three braces to the rail is 
enough, but these must be increased as the 




Fig. 133 — Weir Frog Company's Rail Brace. 




Fig. 134 — Elliot Frog & Switch Company's Rail Brace. 

curvature becomes sharper until there are 
two braces on every tie. They may be made 
of pressed steel as are those shown in Figs. 
133 and 134, which is the best plan, or of 
malleable iron or of wrought iron, but a 
cast-iron rail brace is worse than useless 
and should never be used at an important 
place. 

Creeping rails are the source of much creeping 
annoyance and sometimes cause serious rails. 
damage when not promptly and regularly 
attended to. They occur under different 
conditions and require different remedies 
which are often determined by the local cir- 
cumstances surrounding the trouble. The 
fault is most likely to be found on bridges 
where there is a heavy grade and has been 
entirely corrected by filling the space be- 
tween the cross ties under the rail with 



156 



The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 



Creeping 
rails. 



short blocks of oak of the thickness of the 
ties and spiking the rail closely to them as 
in Fig. 135. The common practice of spik- 



J~|_ n_ HjH 



Fig. 135 — Filling Blocks on Bridge Floors. 

ing in the slot holes or at the ends of the 
angle bars to prevent rails from creeping on 
bridges is bad. It does not often cure the 
trouble and the ties, if they are not dam- 
aged, will usually be disturbed. 

On the ground, the joints may be braced 
to the ties by straps of iron as shown in Fig. 
136, which is a strip of steel bent to shape, 




Fig. 136— Bonzano Anti-Creeper. 



and fastened to the rail with one or two 
track bolts and spiked to the ties in each 
direction. If all other measures fail, single 



Track Work. 



157 




158 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 



Creeping 
rails. 



split points should be placed in the track. 
These can move back and forth through a 
distance of several inches and do no harm. 
When they have moved any considerable 
distance, the rails back of them can be 
changed by inserting pieces of different 
lengths which must be kept on hand for the 
purpose. An ingenious and useful applica- 
tion of this idea is shown in Fig. 137. Here 
the split rail is unspiked but is held firmly 
against the main rail by the spring which 
may be seen in the sectional view. 




Fig. 138— Pettibone, Mulliken & Company's Slip Joint. 



Bending 
rails. 



Kails on all curves above 3 deg. should be 
carefully curved before being laid if a good 
track is desired, for if this is not done, even 
when the track was originally left in good 
line, the elasticity of the metal will soon 
cause it to spring in at the center and out at 
the joints, resulting in a track composed of 
several short pieces of straight line instead 
of a regular curve. The frequent fault of 



Track Work. 



159 



not carrying the curve out to the end of the 
rail should be particularly avoided. Even 
though the rails have been properly 
curved, if the spikes have not been driven 
tight against the rails both inside and out- 
side, the passage of trains will soon develop 
unexpected and annoying kinks. 

Of the many devices for bending rails, the Rau 
cheapest and the one most in use is the benders. 
"Jim Crow," shown in Fig. 139, w^hich is 




Fig. 139 — "Jim Crow" Rail Bender. 

worked by a capstan screw and bar. The 
traveling rail-bender. Fig. 140, is placed at 
one end of the rail where it is adjusted to 
the proper curve; then by revolving the 




Fig. 140 — Traveling Rail Bender, 



capstan in the center of the mechanism the 
device is propelled along the rail, curving 
it as it goes. The hydraulic rail-bender, Fig. 
141, is an adaptation of the hydraulic jack 
and is an efficient tool, since it operates very 



160 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Rail 
benders. 




Fig. 141 — Hydraulic Rail Bender. 
(Watson & Stillman Co.) 




Fig. 142 — Q & C-Samson Rail Bender. 
(Railway Appliances Co.) 




Fig. 143 — Rail Bender. (Verona Tool Works.) 



rapidly and with great force. Two other 
forms are shown in Figs. 142 and 143. Fig. 
143 resembles the "Jim Crow" in principle 



Track Work. 161 

but the bearings against the rail are hinged 
to facilitate the movement of the machine 
along the rail. Fig. 142 is very compact and 
is easily carried from place to place. 

If it is necessary to make holes in the web bou and 
of a rail to be used in the main track it ^p'^e 
should not be done with a hand punch, Fig. *^'*'^*' 
144, except in the most urgent cases as the 




Fig. 144 — Hand Punch. 

action of the punch injures the metal in the 
web. The hand punch may be used, how- 
ever, for work on side tracks and is a handy 
tool to have on hand when putting in bolts. 
The hydraulic punch, Fig. 145, is at best 




Fig. 145 — Hydraulic Rail Punch. 
(Watson & Stillman Co.) 

only a substitute for the hand punch. A 
number of forms of track drills are shown 
in Figs. 146 to 149. With the exception of 
the simple ratchet drill shown in Fig. 146, 
all of the others have self-feeding attach- 
ments. 



162 The Roadmastees' Assistant. 



Track 
drills. 




Fig. 146 — Typical Ratchet Di-il 




Fig. 147 — "Ball" Track Drill. 
(Pettibone, Mulliken & Co.) 




Fig. 148 — The Buda Drill Withdrawn. 
(Buda Fdy. & Mfg. Co.) 



Track Work. 



163 




Fig. 149 — The Buda Drill Ready for Drilling. 
(Buda Fdy. & Mfg. Co.) 

An ingenious application of the hydraulic Track 
jack is illustrated in Fig. 150 for cutting <*•■'"*• 
spike slots in the base of a rail; this is 
greatly to be preferred to the hand punch 
which is shown in Fig. 151. 




Fig. 150 — Hydraulic Punch for Spike Slot. 
(Watson & Stillman Co.) 

For cutting rails in an emergency and for cutting 
general rough work the track chisel, Figs, rails. 
152 and 153, is the best tool, but like rail 



164 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Punches 

and 

chisels. 




Fig. 151— Hand Punch for Spike Slot. 

punches it must not be used on the main 
track. Its best work is coarse compared 
with that of tools especially designed for 




Fig. 152 — Hand Cutting Chisel. 




Fig. 153 — Track Chisel. 



the purpose as are those shown in Figs. 151 
and 155. Besides, it is slow, uncertain and 




Fig. 154 — Higley Rail Saw. 



Track Work. 




Rail 
saw. 



Fig. 155 — Brj-ant Rail Saw. 



the rail is apt to be bent in some other place 
in dropping it on another rail in order to 
break it at the nick. 



CHAPTER Xin. 

Tools. 

There is such a variety of tools used in 
maintaining railroad track, that beyond il- 
lustrating and describing one or two typical 
forms in each class, little can be said. Many 
that are used have already been described 
in previous chapters but many others that 
have not been touched upon will be de- 
scribed here. 

Unless the local passenger trains are velocipede 
quite frequent, each roadmaster should cars, 
have a velocipede-car to carry him from 
point to point. The old and common form is 
shown in Fig. 157 but in Figs. 158 and 159 




Fig. 157 — One-Man Velocipede. 
(Fairbanks, Morse & Co.) 



168 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 




Fig. 158 — Double Bicycle Inspection Car. 
(Light Inspection Car Co.) 



Velocipede 

cars. 




7 T 



Fig. 1.59 — SiBgle Bicycle lusnection Car. 
(Light Inspecti(.n Car Co.) 



are shown two cars of a much lighter con- 
struction which are built like bicycles and 
iiave four wheels of uniform diameter in- 
stead of two main wheels and an outrigger. 
They have the distinct advantage of having 
the seat for the rider or riders placed in the 



Tools. 



159 




Fig. 160 — Velocipede Cai* with Attacliment for Carrying 
Switcli Lamps. 
(The Roberts Car & Wlieel Co.) 

middle of the machine where the view of velocipede 
the track is better and the car is not so apt cars, 
to tip over when going around curves at any 
speed. A velocipede-car for switch-lamp 
tenders is shown in Fig. 160. 

Four types of gasolene motor inspection Motor 
cars are shown in Figs. 161 to 164. They '"spection 
are operated by small gasolene engines and *^*"* 




Fig. 161 — Gasolene Motor Inspection Car. 
(Fairbanks. Morse & Co.) 



170 



The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 




Fig. 162 — Gasolene Motor Inspection Car. 
(Light Inspection Car Co.) 




Fig. 163 — Gasolene Motor Inspection Car. 
(Kalamazoo Railway Supply Co.) 

are capable of running at speeds of 30 miles 
an hour and upwards. The cost for gaso- 
lene is only a few cents a day. They will 
seat from three to five persons and are use- 
ful for monthly inspections when it is often 
necessary for two or three men to take part* 



171 




Fig. 164 — Gasolene Motor Inspection Car. 
(Kalamazoo Railway Supply Co.) 

The attention of the inspectors is not dis- 
tracted from their duties by performing 
manual labor as would be the case if a hand 
velocipede were used. 

Each section, except the very short ones Hand cars, 
should be provided with an easy-running 
hand-car, Figs. 165 and 166, for the trans- 




FiG. 165 — Hand Car. 
(Buda Foundry & Mfg. Co.) 



172 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 




Fig. 166 — Hand Car. 
(The Roberts Car & Wbeel Co.) 



Hand cars, portation of men and tools but not for carry- 
ing material unless it be very light. The 
cars should be of as little weight as is con- 
sistent with strength so that they can be 
easily lifted on and off the track when meet- 
ing trains or while the men are at work. 
The push-car or larry, Figs. 167 and 168, for 
carrying material, should be strong and not 
necessarily so light. 




Fig. 167. — Push Car. 
(Fairbanks. Morse & Co.) 



Tools. 173 



Fig. 168 — Push Car. 
(The Roberts Car & Wheel Co.) 



A new form of vehicle for handling small Track- 
quantities of material over short distances ''"'"''ows. 
is shown in Figs. 169 to 171. The wheel- 
barrow will run on the ground or on a plank 
as easily as any other wheelbarrow but it is 
so balanced that it will run on the rail and 
permit a man to walk alongside the rail and 
not astride it. The other two "dollies" can 
be used for ties, bridge timbers or rails, the 
one with the handle, Fig. 171, being par- 
ticularly adapted to handling rails. One 
man with this device can do the work of 
half-a-dozen men without it. 




Fig. 169 — Trackbarrow. 
(American Trackbarrow Co.) 



174 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 




Fig. 170 — Larry for Handling Timbers. 
(American Trackbarrow Co.) 



Track 
gage. 




Fig. 171 — Larry for Handling Rails. 
(American Trackbarrow Co.) 

The track gage should be not only a gage 
but a square, so formed that, when placed 
against the rail, it will stand at right angles 



Fig. 172 — Track Gage. 
(Verona Tool Works.) 

to it. The old and well-known Huntington 
gage fulfils these conditions. In Fig. 173 
the lugs pointing downward at the ends are 
made the width necessary to gage the dis- 
tance of the guard rail from the main rail 
opposite the point of a frog; this is not a 



Tools. 



175 



feature of the gage in its original form, but Track 
is a modification which will be found con- eage. 
venient and will assist in reaching accurate 
results. All track gages must be compared 
from time to time with a standard measure 




=<=S> 



Fig. 173 — Modified Huntington Track Gage. 

kept at headquarters and no track spiking 
of any kind should be performed without 
the use of the gage, where the track is un- 
spiked for more than two ties or where the 
neighboring spikes have been driven for a 
long time. 

The track level, Fig. 174, should be sub- Track 
stantial but light, formed of white pine, free ^^^ei. 
from knots and bound all around with |-in. 
iron.' Another form, shown in Fig. 175, ad- 
raits of a closer adjustment but is more apt 




3.CE 



2E 



Fig. 174 — Ordinary Track Level. 



to be damaged and is likely to prove mis- 
leading in the hands of a careless man, or 
unless it is closely watched. The addition 
of two gaging-lugs would render it a valu- 
able combination tool for carrying upon the 



176 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 



Track roadiiiaster's velocipede car, since it is light 

level. jjnd by folding back the slotted scale, be^ 

comes very compact. The track-level, like 

the gage, should be constantly used when 

workins: around the track and should be oc- 



r7\ 




Fig. 175 — Adjustable Track Leyel. 



Tape 

line. 



casionally tested to see that it is really cor- 
rect. This test can easily be made at any 
time by setting the level so that the bubble 
appears exactly in the center of the open- 
ing; then after turning it end for end, if the 
level is correct, the bubble v^iil still remain 
exactly in the center of the opening. 

Each section-foreman should have a 50- 
ft. tape line which need not and should 
not vary more than 2 in. from the correct 
standard in its whole length. These tape 
lines in order to remain correct must be 
well made of substantial material. The 
miserable printed calico affairs often sup- 
plied by the purchasing agent are worse 
than useless and probably cost more in the 
end than a strong and accurate tape. The 
road master should have in his pocket at all 
times when on duty, a 25-ft. steel tape. It 
is an absolutely necessary implement and 
will be found useful on many occasions. 

In connection with the tape line, the road- 
master will find the clamp, Fig. 176, a useful 



Tools. 



177 



and convenient device. It will take the T"p« 
place of a man in making most of the meas- 
urements necessary around the track, and 
with two clamps (which can easily be car- 




FiG. 176 — Clamp for Holding Tape Line. 

ried on the velocipede) it is possible to lay 
off most measurements and simple geomet- 
rical figures with considerable accuracy. 

For other purposes than raising track, J«ck*- 
the hydraulic or ball-bearing jacks shown 
in Figs. 177 and 178, are very useful. They 
are particularly valuable at wrecks or in 
doing bridge work where heavy weights 
are to be lifted through short distances. 




-Norton Bail-Bearing Jack for Heavy Lifting. 



178 



The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 




Fig. 178 — Watson & Stillman Hydraulic Jack. 

Wrenches. Track-bolt wrenches, Figs. 179 and 180, 
should be as light in weight as is consistent 
with strength and they should fit the nuts 
easily if rapid work is to be done. It is 
possible to make the square wrench fit some- 
what more loosely than the hexagonal 




Fig. 179 — Hexagonal Nut Wrench. 
Fig. 180 — Square Nut Wrench. 



wrench without running the chances of 
rounding the corners of the nuts, and this 
is one of the principal reasons for preferring 
the square nut. The monkey wrench, Fig. 
181, is subject to such rough usage that it 
should be made as substantially as possible 
and because of this the metal handle is bet- 



Tools. 179 

ter than a wooden one. Men are quite apt wrenche*. 
to use a monkey wrench as a hammer and 




Fig. 181 — Metal Handle Monkey Wrench. 

the section foreman should see that this is 
never done since it bends the tightening 
screw and will eventually ruin the wrench. 

For grubbing and cleaning up a right-of- picks, 
way and for the rough work to which a 
finely sharpened axe or adze should not be 
put, the mattock, Fig. 182, is invaluable. 




Fig. 182 — Mattock. 

It combines the useful qualities of two en- 
tirely different tools and costs little more 
than either of them. 

The clay pick. Fig. 183, need not be heavy 
but it must be of finely tempered steel, very 
strong and not much curved. 



Fig. 183— Clay Pick. 

Fig. 184 shows the best form of tamping 
tool for stone ballast. Like the clay pick, it 
must be hard and finely tempered. The 



180 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

wcks. weight should be so distributed that the 
pick will not have a tendency to turn over 
while the tamping end is in use and this 
end must be quite heavy and considerably 
curved in order that the pick may find its 
way under the tie. 




Fig. 184 — Ballast Pick. 

A novel kind of pick is shown in Fig. 185 
for which many advantages are claimed. It 
may have any form of end, as is evident, but 
the one illustrated is best suited to coarse 
gravel although it can be used for stone. 




Fig. 185— Eyeless Pick.- 
(Eyeless Tool Company.) 

No eye need be forged in this pick, and 
therefore steel of the same quality may be 
used throughout. The pick never needs new 
points but only sharpening and tempering 
and it will give service until it is worn to 
the shortest practical limit. The protection 
afforded by the handle grip is also claimed 
to increase the life of the handle. 



Fig, 186 — Ballast Fork. 



Tools. 



181 



The only suitable instrument for handling Ballast 
stone ballast is that shown in Fig. 186, *°*'*^- 
which is shaped somewhat like a manure 
fork but is much larger and has square 
tines. 

Gravel ballast requires different treat- Tamping 
ment from stone and therefore a different ba'- 
instrument for packing it. The usual form 
of tamping bar is illustrated in Fig. 187. 




Fig. 1S7 — Tamping Bar. 



Napping hammers, Fig. 188, for breaking Hammers. 
stone ballast by hand should have either 
very long or very short handles depending 
on whether the men are to stand or be 




Fig. 188 — Napping Hammer. 

seated while at work. It is usually pre- 
ferred that they shall stand, but the hammer 
in either case should be extremely light, not 
to exceed three pounds without the handle, 
which should be quite large at the grasp 




Fig. 189 — Sledge. 



and small where it enters the head. The 
amount of ballast that a man can break 



182 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



depends very largely on the kind of hammer 
and handle which he has to work with. 
Both the napping hammer and a 10-lb. 
sledge, Fig. 189, are a necessity where stone 
ballast is used and are a convenience on 
every section. 
Claw bars. The claw bar, Fig. 190, has two distinct 
and common forms, the "bulPs-foot" and the 
"goose-neck." Most persons prefer the 
goose-neck, since it has a longer reach and 




Fig. 190 — "Goose-neck" and "Bull's Foot" Claw-Bars. 



does not require a spike or a stone to be 
placed under it when a spike is half pulled. 
Neither is the goose-neck so apt to bend the 
spikes in drawing them as is the bulPs-foot. 
Lining and The lining bar. Fig. 191, is particularly in- 
pinchbars. tended for lining and surfacing track and it 
should therefore be quite long and heavy. 



Fig. 191 — Lining Bar. 

It is not suited for much of the work which 
is required of a crow-bar and if crossing 



Fig. 192— Pinch Bars. 



TOOLB. 



183 



planks or platform planks are to be raised 
without destroying them, the pinch bar, Fig. 
192, must be used. 

A spike maul of the ordinary form is spike 
shown in Fig. 193. "««*• 




Fig. 193. — Spike Maul. 



The snow shovel shown in Fig. 194 is easy shoveis. 
to make, is strong and durable and is par- 
ticularly adapted for cleaning platforms or 
heaping snow into piles to be carted off. 



M 



7 



Fig. 194 — Snow Shovel. 



The dirt shovel, Fig. 195, is for ordinary 
work in soft dirt. 



Fig. 195 — Dirt Shovel. 



184 



Shovals. 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

The long-handled, pointed ditching shovel, 
Fig. 196, is one which will be found gener- 
ally useful for that purpose. It will take up 
as much dirt as a man can easily throw 



Fig. 196— Pointed Ditching Shovel. 



Drain 

ditchinsT 

tools. 



from a ditch to a partly loaded flat car and 
it penetrates the earth easily by reason of 
its sharp point. Both of these shovels are 
made with long and short handles but ex- 
cept for some particular reason, both kinds 
are not usually required on a section. 

Figs. 197 to 201 show the long narrow 
shovels best adapted for drain work; be- 
cause of their shape, a trench scarcely wider 
than the tile drain may be excavated to a 
considerable depth, with a corresponding 
saving in the amount of material removed. 



E> 



Fig. 197 — Spade for Drain Ditches. 



Pig. 198— Spade for Drain Ditches. 



(^>= 



Fig. 199— Long-Handled Ditching Shovel. 



Tools. 



185 



In those with openings in the blade, ex- Ditching 
cavation in wet material is much facilitated. ^°***^- 
The other tools for drain ditch work shown 
in Figs. 202 to 204 are used for cleaning and 
surfacing the bottom of the ditch. 



c:^^ 



Fig. 200 — Tile Drain Shovel. 



Fig. 201 — Tile Drain Spade. 



"Tr: 




Fig. 202 — Square Scraper. 




Fig. 203 — ^Round Scraper. 



Fig. 204 — Flat Scraper. 



186 



Post 
holes. 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 

For digging deep post holes, Figs. 205 and 
206, show the form of shovel most gener- 
ally used but in shallow holes in soft dirt 



Fig. 205 — Post-Hole Scoop. 



=0 



Fig. 206— Post-Hole Shovel. 

the "scissors'' digger, Fig. 207, works very 
rapidly. This is driven into the ground with 
the handles close together; they are then 
spread apart (which brings the scoops to- 
gether), the digger is withdrawn and the 
earth emptied onto the ground. 



Fig. 207 — "Scissors" Post-Hole Digger. 

The "auger" post hole digger. Fig. 208, is 
said to be able to penetrate even coarse 
gravel with comparative ease and is pre- 
ferred by many trackmen to any other form 
of digger. 




Fig. 208 — Auger Post-Hole Digger. 



Tools. 



187 



Fig. 209 shows the common form of rail Rail toast 
tongs for lifting and carrying rails and Fig. ■"<* *»*• 




Fig, 209 — Rail Tongs. 

210 shows a rail fork for turning rails on 
cars when it is desired to inspect them. 



Fig. 210 — Rail Fork. 

A flag and lantern holder for caution sig- Flag 
nals is necessary when track is being raised holder, 
or other heavy repairs made and a simple 
arrangement is shown in Fig. 211. It is 
formed of a piece of gas-pipe about 6 ft. 




Pig. 211 — Flag Holder. 



188 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

Piag long, pointed at the bottom and with an 
holder. ordinary cast-iron "tee" screwed to the top. 
The lantern is supported on the hook at A 
which is bent around the "tee" and is made 
of Jin. round iron. If a hole be bored 
through the end of the flag stick, and a pin 
be put through the hole after the flag has 
been placed in the holder, the flag will be 
prevented from falling out while a piece of 
telegraph wire, bent into the proper shape, 
will, if sewed into the edges of the cloth, 
prevent the flag from being rolled up by the 
wind. 
Care of A number of tools should be assigned to 

tools. each section, sufficient to keep all of the men 
employed at any kind of work that may be 
going on and to replace dull tools which 
have been sent to the blacksmith shop for 
sharpening. Before being issued, the tools 
must be branded or stamped with the ini- 
tials of the railroad company in such a way 
as to make it impossible to efface them 
without destroying the tool, and except in 
rare cases, a track-foreman should be forced 
to turn in his old tools at the time new ones 
are issued to him. The tool report well re- 
pays attention, but it is the one most fre- 
quently lost sight of. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

Frogs, Switches and Switch Stands 

In the last chapter of this book, among Frog 
other rules and tables, will be found a sim- angles and 
pie, diagrammatic method of laying out «»«"*>«"• 
switches, together with explanations of frog 
numbers, angles, etc.; in this chapter only 
the physical characteristics of various 
classes of material will be dealt with. 

All switch nomenclature is based directly 
upon what is known as the "number" of its 
frog. In other words, a No. 6 switch lead is 
that lead which would be used with a No. 6 
frog. 

The simple split switch is now in almost varieties 
universal use on main tracks in the United <>* 
States. Many other more complicated forms switches, 
have been tried, all of which are intended 
to protect trains passing over the switch in 
a trailing direction but with the exception 
of the Wharton and possibly one or two 
others, none of them have ever had an ex- 
tended use. 

The Wharton switch was designed to ac- wharton 
complish two things : first, to provide an un- switch, 
broken rail for trains on the main track; 
second, for protecting trains approaching 
an open switch in a trailing direction, and 
these were quite successfully done but at a 
cost which was almost prohibitive. One 
form of this switch, the "Robinson-Whar- 
ton," illustrated in Pig. 212, differs consider- 
ably from the original, in having its two 
moving rails made from ordinary Trails 



190 The Roadmastees' Assistant. 



Robinson- 

Wharton 

awltcfa. 




Frogs, Switches and Switch Stands. 191 

instead of from specially shaped materials, spiit 

A typical form of split switch is shown in switches. 
Fig. 213. The details are varied at times 
but in principle all switches of this type are 
identical. Some trackmen prefer flat rods, 
and some round rods; some wish to have 
the jaw of the rod placed on the switch rod 
fastenings and some prefer to have it on the 
switch rod itself. Generally speaking, the 
less movable parts there are about a switch 
the better, and in the design above men- 
tioned there is not a single bolt, nut or weld. 
The fastenings are riveted to the rail, and 
the rods are formed of two pieces of flat iron 
riveted together, which, being separated at 
the end, form jaws. The rods and fasten- 
ings on the rail are connected by turned pins 
furnished with cotters, while the connecting 
rod and switch rod are also joined by a 
turned pin and cotter. 

The common practice of using four and switch 
even five rods in a split switch, is adapted fo^s. 
from the old stub switch, which depended 
on the rods to hold the rails together. In a 
split switch, however, the rail which is in 
use, can and should be always braced on the 
outside for more than half its length; this 
renders more than two rods an unnecessary 
complication. The only purpose that the 
additional ones could possibly serve would 
be to hold the rails together in case of a 
break and it is hard to see how they could 
do even this much. A much better and 
safer way is to reinforce the switch points. 

Two ways of reinforcing split points are Reinforce- 
shown. The first, at in Fig. 21.3, is the "««*• 
simplest method and is accomplished by 
riveting through and on each side of the 
web, two bars of steel. Although this is 
probably inferior to the plan shown in Fig. 
214, it is far stronger and more reliable than 
the old method. The switch shown in Fi^. 
214 has a plain bar on the side next to the 



192 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 




Frogs, Switches and Switch Stands. 



193 





1^4 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 




Frocs, Switches and Switch Stands. 195 

main rail but the bar on the other side is Reioiorce- 
replaced by a strip of angle steel to which ""**• 
the switch rod is attached. It is evident 
that the horizontal flange of the angle is 
much stiffer laterally and also lighter than 
the flat form of metal. Two important ad- 
vantages are gained by the use of rein- 
forced split points, through the removal of 
switch rods; the lessening of damage from 
dragging brake-beams and the absence of 
interference from snow and ice. Another 
form of split switch which avoids the use of 
multiple switch rods is shown in Fig. 215. 
The guard rails are blocked to the movable 
points and the switch rod is attached to the 
ends of the guard rails. 

The difficulty of maintaining a perfect Lap point 
gage between the points of an ordinary *w*<^*»««- 
switch has led to the idea of projecting one 
of the rails slightly beyond the other as 
shown in Fig. 216 in which the two rails are 
rigidly fastened together by an ingenious 
arrangement of tie rods. This form of 
switch is particularly applicable to short 
leads where the bends in the main rails are 
sharp. 

Three-throw switches have always been a Three- 
source of much annoyance and extra work throw 
for the trackmen in keeping them in a safe *'^'*^**®*- 
condition but yardmen like them because 
they save running about and because a "fly- 
ing switch" can be made through them so 
easily. They are always to be avoided if 
possible and usually can be, particularly in 
main track, although sometimes circum- 
stances will permit of no other solution of 
the problem. The reinforced-point, three- 
throw switch is, however, fairly easy of 
maintenance and one is shown in Fig. 217 
which represents good practice. 

The throw of split switches should be not Throw oi 
less than S^ in. nor more than 5 in. On switches. 
some railroads 5 in. is preferred, for the 



196 



The RoADJfASTERs' Assistant. 




^i<»3fil/uvpu6tg 



Frogs, Switches a:sd Switch Sta:tds. 



197 




I s 



[® 



198 The Roadmastees' Assistant. 

reason that all switch stands, whether for 
stub or split switches may then be inter- 
changeable but the increasing use of split 
switches even in side tracks and the fact 
that for all interlocking the throw must be 
small, makes 3J in. the better distance to 
use. 
Adjust- The movement of the switch points may 

"*"** be adjusted by either of several methods. 
One plan is shown in Fig. 218, in which 
there is a small plate containing two holes 




c:t=> 



Fig. 218 — Union Switch & Signal Co.'s Switch-Throw 
Adjustment. 

through which it is riveted to the switch 
rod. The ends of the plate are also bored 
with large holes and bent in at right angles. 
Through them are fitted loosely two sleeves 
which in turn are mounted upon the con- 
necting rod and are held in position there 
by four nuts, one on each end of each sleeve. 
The switch rod may move through the plate 
only an amount depending on the distance 
apart of the sleeves, since it is stopped on 
both sides by offsets on the outside end of 
each sleeve. The switch stand must always 
have a throw somewhat greater than the 
throw of the switch and one advantage of 
this method is that it may be considerably 
greater. If an adjustment is necessary the 
two sleeves are moved away from or toward 
each other depending on whether the throw 
of the switch is to be diminished or in- 
creased. A distinct disadvantage of this 
plan is the ease with which the adjustment 
can be made (it is only necessary to turn 
the nuts) whereas, the adjustment should be 
made as inconvenient as possible, since in 



Fkogs, Switches a:sd Switch Stands. 



199 



that way the chance of someone's tampering 
with it is reduced. 

Fig. 219 shows another method which uses Adiast- 
a special turn-buckle having either a right- "®"^' 
hand or left-hand thread in both ends. To 
adjust the throw, one end of the rod raust 



— C^O-^ 



Fig. 219 — Weir Frog Co.'s Switch-Throw Adjustment.. 

be removed from its rail but the advantage 
which this form has is that in case the jam 
nuts work loose and the turn-buckle moves 
in either direction, the throw of the switch 
is not changed. 

A third plan is shown in Fig. 220 which 
consists of two rail clips with an inclined 
series of holes by means of which, if the 
gage of the points changes, the proper dis- 




FiG. 220 — Pettibone-Mulliken's Switch-Throw 
Adjustment. 

tance may be re-established by simply mov- 
ing the head rod into a new set of holes, 
farther apart or nearer together as the case 
may be. Fig. 221 shows still another meth- 
od which is effective but more complicated. 



200 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Adjust' 
ment. 



A cam-shaped plug 0, which has two small 
lugs on it, is seated in the rail-clip B which 
has a series of holes, not concentric with the 
large hole in B but spaced to fit the lugs on 
0. Together B and C combine to form A 
and the opening in C receives the pin of the 





Rail 
braces. 



—-IT 



221 — Pettibone-Mulliken's 
Adjustment. 



Switch-Throw 



head rod. In order to change the gage of 
the switch points it is only necessary to re- 
volve on B and the eccentricity of the two 
moves the points in or out. 

Not less than five rail braces as in Fig. 
213, should be used on each side of a split 
switch and in connection with them plates 
should always be provided to prevent the 




Fig. 222— Rail Brace and Bearing Plate. 



rail from cutting into the tie and to form a 
surface on which the split rail may move 
easilv. An ingenious combination of these 



Frogs, Switches and Switch Stands. 201 

parts made from one piece of metal is 
shown in Fig. 222. 

If the track is properly gaged and the Point 
switch properly put in, guard rails at the guard 
point should not be necessary. Since the *"""*• 
throw of a split switch should never be less 
than 3J in., a wheel which would catch the 
open point would scarcel3^ pass over the 
numerous highway crossings which exist, 
without being derailed at one of them. 

The stub switch is composed of ordinary stub 
Trails with two head chairs and some switches, 
switch rods. It is almost unnecessary to 
say that it should never be used for main 
track as it is dangerous in many ways and 
is extremely difficult to maintain under a 
heavy traffic. The best practice requires 
that the head chairs, Figs. 223 and 224, shall 




Fig. 223 — Wrought-Iron Stub Switch Chair. 




Fig. 224 — Pettibone-Miilliken Stub Switch Chair. 

be of wrought iron, wrought steel (not cast) Frog 
or malleable iron ; that two bridle rods shall s"ard 
be used and that the switch rods shall be ***"*• 
formed of not less than IJ-in. round or 
square iron. The throw should be 5 in. 

The arrangement of main track and side 
track guard rails at frogs is shown in Fig. 
225. They should be 15 ft. and 10 ft. long 
respectively, with their centers opposite the 



202 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 



Fr«g 
guard 
rails. 



point of the frog. Three feet of the main 
track guard rail at the middle portion 
should be straight, spaced 2 in. from the 
main track rail for 4-ft. 9-in. gage, and If in. 
for 4-ft. S-J-in. gage. Side-track guard rails 
should be curved in the same general way> 




U U UiU-M u u 



6 FT. CURVED -^FT STR/I/GHT^ 



-6 FT. CURl/ED — 



-Track Gage4 8'/Eor4'5"- 



! ^<— — Q>mxi f?flil Distance 4'£" Opposite Frog ?6\n\ >4 | 



U%"for4'6y2"Gage 
2" .. 4' 5" .. 




Fig. 225 — Arrangement of Guard Rails. 



but the straight piece 3 ft. long should be 
omitted. Not less than six braces should be 
used on main track nor less than four on 
side track guard rails. As a substitute for 
the rail brace (Figs. 133 and 134) at guard 
rails, the clamp. Fig. 226, is sometimes used. 
Although more expensive, it is much more 
certain and efficient than the rail brace. 



Frogs, Switches and Switch Stands. 



203 



For spacing guard rails as well as for all Guard 
other track spiking, a gage is necessary, ^»"*- 
with lugs having a width equal to the dis- 
tance between the guard rail and the main 
track rail heads. Such a gage, represented 
in Fig. 173, is simple in form, inexpensive 
and more important still, because of the 
joke, it acts as a square. 




Fig. 226 — "Standard" Guard Rail Fastener. 

Many states require that employees shall p^^^t 
be protected from the danger due to frog guards, 
openings, but whether the law on the sub- 
ject is operative or not, there is a moral 
obligation which railroads cannot afford to 
ignore. 




227 — Pressed Steel Foot Guard for Frogs and Switches. 
(The Roberts Car & Wheel Co.) 



204 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

Foot These openings are sometimes closed with 

guards. wedges of wood which are a makeshift at 
best and there are other arrangements 
which are built into the frog and may be 
purchased of any switch and frog maker. 
Still other forms which are removable are 
illustrated in Figs. 227 and 228. 

Of these, Fig. 227 is provided with springs 
for the purpose of holding it tightly in posi- 
tion. It is made in several different forms 
to suit the particular place which it is to fill. 
The detail shown in the left-hand portion of 
Fig. 228, is the form built for the wing 




Fig. 228— Sheffield Foot Guard. 
(Fairbanks, Morse & Co.) 

spaces of frogs and the heels of switches. 
The right-hand detail is for the crotches of 
frogs and is built of two pieces, hinged at 
one end in order that any guard may be 
adapted to a crotch of any number. 
Slip The "slip switch" is illustrated in two 

switches, forms in Figs. 229 and 230. Its main ob- 
ject is to economize track room. Fig. 229 
is what is known as a "single slip with rigid 
frog" and it will be seen that it provides 
two routes from both and D, but only one 
route each from A and B. In Fig. 230, which 
is called a "double slip with movable frog" 
two routes are possible from all four of the 
entrances E. F. G. H. 



Frogs, Switches and Switch Stands. 



205 



For general work the best length is that slip 
which would be used in connection with switches, 
a No. 7 or No. 8 frog. When the frog 
angle is smaller than No. 8, it becomes 
necessary to use movable frogs as in Fig. 




Fig. 229— Single Slip with Rigid Frogs. 




Fig. 230— Double Slip with Movable Frogs. 



230, since trains are apt to be derailed by 
taking the wrong side of one of the rigid 
double pointed frogs, X in Figs. 229 and 232. 
The movable frog is also a simpler, cheaper, 
better and safer device than the rigid frog. 

The movable frog. Fig. 231, can be used at Movable 
almost any place where the rigid frog, Fig. frogs. 
232, is used and it is by far the better and 
safer of the two. It requires no guard rails 
because there is no opening at the point, 
whereas the rigid frog has and must always 
have openings between the points, and these 
cannot be protected. The movable frog is 
nothing but two bent rails and two sets of 
planed points; it may be used in connection 
with either of Figs. 229 and 230, or alone, as 
at a simple crossing; last but not least, it 
makes the track as smooth as at a split 
switch. 



206 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Movable 
frogs. 



For larger angles than are possible with 
the movable frog some other form is re- 
quired to make the track continuous. Many 
attempts have been made to fulfill this con- 
dition but without great success, commer- 




FiG. 231 — Movable Frog. 



Rigid cially at least. The narrow angle crossing 
crossings, j^^g ^^^^^ showu in Fig. 232. The wide angle 
crossing is shown in Fig. 233. It is not pos- 
sible within the narrow limits of this book 
to illustrate and describe the numberless 
methods of construction many of which are 
very complicated. It suffices to say that the 
heaviest and strongest crossing cannot be 
too heavy or too strong for the work that it 
must do. 
street The intersection of steam railroads with 

railroad elcctric street railroads requires a crossing 
crossings, ^f ^ somewhat different construction from 
that in ordinary use. Fig. 234 illustrates 
a crossing which is designed for this pur- 
pose and which is very strong. A is the 
main rail of the steam railroad, B is a rein- 
forcing rail to carry the worn treads of the 
steam cars over without damage to the elec- 
tric car rail D, and O is the guard rail of 
the steam railroad. A full-sized flange-way 
is left for the steam trains but a small notch 
only is cut for the electric cars at E. 



Frogs, Switches and Switch Stands. 



207 



20& The Roadmasters' Assistant. 




Fig. 233 — Wide Angle Crossing. 



8ECTI0N~X.Y. 




Fig. 234— Street Railroad and Steam Railroad Crossing. 



Frogs, Switches and Switch Stands. 209 

All crossings, of whatever kind, should be crossing 
l)laced on substantial white oak and broken ««««»<*»= 
stone foundations, for thej are the most *'®"*' 
difficult parts of a railroad track to keep up. 

The single pointed or "switch-frog" is switch 
made in two common forms, known as *'''*^*- 
"rigid'' and "spring-rail" and these are 




Fig. 23.5 — Rigid Plate Frog. 




Fig. 236— Rigid Yoke Frog. 



again subdivided according to the way in 
which the rails are put together. Figs. 235 
to 237 show respectively a "riveted plate" 
frog, a "clamped" (or "voke") frog and a 
"bolted" frog, all of them "rigid." Of these 



210 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



three forms the "yoke" is probably the best 
and the "plate" frog the least desirable, 
since the ties must be cut out to receive it. 




Anvil- 
faced 
frogs. 



Spring 
rail frogs. 



Fig. 237 — Rigid Bolted Frog. 

Another form of "clamp" frog is shown in 
Fig. 238 in which the clamps, which are un- 
usually deep and heavy are held in place by 
rods hooked around the ends of the wing 
rails, instead of by keys as in Fig. 236. 

Frogs in main track are subjected to 
severe hammer blows by the modern heavy 
engines and cars running over them at high 
speed, and in order to increase their life as 
much as possible under this punishment, a 
number of designs of so-called "anvil face" 
frogs have been brought out. Pieces of very 
hard steel are introduced at the points of 
most wear and although this adds consider- 
ably to the cost, the results obtained seem 
to justify the increased expense by the re- 
duction in the cost of labor and material in 
the repair and renewals of this part of the 
track. 

The spring rail frog, which is intended to 
furnish a continuous rail on the main track, 
is also built as a "plate," "yoke" and "bolt- 
ed" frog. Through faults of design, the 



Frogs, Switches and Switch Stands. 



211 




212 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

5pring sp ring-rail frog was, at the time of its in- 
raiiirogs. troduction, the cause of some serious 
wrecks, which did much to discredit its use 
on several important railroads. But not- 
withstanding this it has continued to be 
used b^^ a large number of roads, until now 
its construction has been so improved, and 
its parts so strengthened that it is safe to 
recommend its use when properly designed 
and built. A typical spring rail frog is illus- 
trated in Fig. 239. This particular form 
(which is the commonest) requires that the 
spring rail T H shall be unspiked and free 




Fig. 239 — Typical Spring Rail Frog. 

to move sideways, being held only by the 
splices at T, the springs S S and the guides 
G G-. To overcome this objection- another 
method has been devised, illustrated in Fig. 
240, which permits the main-track rail to be 



Frogs, Switches and Switch Stands. 213 



spring 
railfross. 



214 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 




Fkogs, Switches axd Switch Stands. 215 

fastened to the ties as far as P. The spring 
rail is piAoted at A and opposed by the 
spring at B. A variation of this form places 
a hinge at P and the spring nearer A; still 
another kind, following the same idea, is 
shown in Fig. 241. Within the last few 
years a few double spring-rail frogs have 
been built which provide a continuous rail 
for both tracks. They are not much needed 
except in busy yards and at the entrances 
to terminal passenger stations. 

The Coughlin "Swing Kail" frog, shown in cougwin 
Figs. 242 and 243, accomplishes the same swing-rail 
thing as the spring frogs mentioned above *'®^* 
but in a different way. The main rail is 
continuous as in the others but the siding 
rail, for a part of its length, has the base 
and web planed off and it is hinged at the 
left-hand end. When the switch is set for 
main track, the swing rail is entirely out of 
the way and no parts of the frog are near 
enough to the main rail to strike the wheel 
flanges of a passing engine or train and 
cause a derailment. With the switch set 




m ill m 



Fio. 242 — Coughlia "Swing Rail" Frog Set for Main Track. 



216 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



for the siding, the swing rail rests on top of 
the main rail and the wheels are carried up 
and over the main rail. The frog may be 
operated with an independent switch stand 




LU LU ill m LU Ul 



Fig. 243— CougWin "Swing Rail" Frog Set for Side Track. 



Ordering 
frogs. 



Switch 
stands. 



as shown in Figs. 242 and 243 or in con- 
nection with an adaptation of the Wharton 
switch and a distant signal and so arranged, 
it is an excellent device for outlying 
switches. 

In ordering frogs, the number (or angle) 
and the total length of the frog, the gage of 
the track, the section and drilling of the rail 
should be given, and if a spring-rail frog, 
whether a "right hand" or "left hand" is de- 
sired. This is determined by standing at 
the head of the switch and looking toward 
the frog. It will then be seen whether the 
frog is to go into the rail upon the right 
hand side or into the rail upon the left hand 
side. Fig. 240 is a "right hand" frog and 
Fig. 241 is a "left hand" frog. 

Switch stands may be divided into two 
general classes, automatic and rigid. Auto- 
matic stands are those which, if the switch 



Fkous, Switches and Switch Stands. 



217 



be set wrong and a train approaches from Automatic 
the frog, will be thrown by the train itself switch 
whether it be on main track or side track. *^"**** 
Two forms are shown, a high stand. Fig. 244 




Fig. 244 — Ramapo High-Automatic Switch Stand. 




Fig. 245 — Ramapo Low-Automatic Switch Stand. 



and a low stand. Fig. 245. Both are oper- 
ated by a concealed spring. 

There are many other forms of automatic 
switch stands operated by gears or cams or 
levers and a few of them are shown in Figs. 
246 to 250. Each has its own particular 
points of excellence and their is little to 
chose between them. The original form of 
automatic switch with positive movement is 



218 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Automatic that shown in Fig. 246, with which is corn- 
switch bined a high target. Any of the other forms 
stands. gjjQ^n ^ith low targets are equally appli- 




FiG. 246 — Automatic Switch Stand and High Target. 
(Pennsylvania Steel Co.) 




Fig. 247 — Eclipse Automatic Switch Stand. 



Fkogs, Switches and Switch Stands. 



219 



cable for high targets. Fig. 251 shows a Automatic 

low switch stand for a three-throw split switch 

., , ^ stands. 

switch. 





1 J -^ ' ■ 


1 


F^ 


f — "^~^ 


iF — ^-' i/^lp 






ii^ — T ,fii 


^ N 


f ' — "^ 


m -^~ \Si f|h 




i 


i 1 



Fig. 248 — Automatic Switch Stand. 
(Ramapo Iron Works.) 




Fig. 249 — Automatic Ground Switch Stand. 
(American Valve & Meter Co.) 




Fig. 250 — Automatic Ground Switch Stand. 
(Pettibone, Mulliken & Co.) 



Figs. 252 aud 253 are stands intended for 
three-throw switches. The form shown in 



220 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Three- 
throw 
switch 
stands. 



Fig. 253 is peculiar in that by means of the 
cog wheels on its top plate, the target is 
made to show red for both side tracks, re- 
gardless of whether the main track is in the 
center or not; this is an impossibility with 




Fig. 251 — Low Stand for Three-Throw Split Switch. 
(Weir Frog Co.) 




Fig. 252 — High Stand for Three-Throw Split Switch. 
(Elliot Frog & Switch Co.) 



Frogs, Switches and Switch Stands. 

the ordinary three-throw switch stand. 
These target-moving cogs may also be ap- 
plied to Fig. 251. 



221 




Fig. 253— High Stand for Three-Throw Stub Switch. 
(Weir Frog Co.) 

The old and reliable "jack knife" switch Rigid 
stand is illustrated in Fig. 254. It may be stands. 
used anywhere and with any target, single 
switch or movable frog except at busy 



Fig. 254— "Jack-Knife" Switch Stand. 

switches where deep snow is encountered switch 
in the winter at which places the harp lamps, 
stand, Fig. 255, can be used to better ad- 
vantage. 

The switch lamps and the signal lamps 
should not be taken from the stands in the 
morning until the targets can be seen for a 
considerable distance. They should be 
cleaned and filled every day and the wick 
should be trimmed by rubbing, not by cut- 



222 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Switch ting it; finally the lamps sliould be lighted 
lamps. r^jj^ allowed to stand for at least half an 
hour in the evening, before being taken out, 
so as to make it certain that thej will not 
smoke. On some roads it might appear to an 
observer that the switch lamps are put up 




Fig. 255 — Harp Stand for Single or Three-Throw 
Switches. 



more as a formality than for actual use. 
One of the most frequent causes for their 
going out is loose head blocks which are left 
untamped at the end under the switch stand 
and this is evidently an easy matter to cor- 
rect. The roadmaster should insist that the 
signal lamps and switch lamps which are 
furnished him are of good construction and 
properly taken care of. 



CHAPTER XV. 

EMEBaENCIES AND TrAIN SiONALS. 

Since nearly everytliing which can happen 
to stop the traffic of a railroad will, in some 
particular, damage the permanent way, the 
presence of the trackmen will usually be re- 
quired to make repairs. It follows, there- 
fore, that they must be prepared at all times 
to turn out in full force with the tools and 
materials necessary for the work and for 
this reason the tool-house should be placed 
next to a track which is not used for stand- 
ing cars. The tools of all kinds should be 
kept at hand and in good order while the 
men should live within easy call of the sec- 
tion foreman. 

On each section, some rails, bolts, spikes. Extra 
joint fastenings and cross ties should be material. 
stored in convenient and safe places to meet 
any sudden demand caused by train wrecks, 
floods, landslides, etc. At the subdivision 
headquarters there should be kept on hand 
some timbers of different lengths, prefer- 
ably 12 in. square, since that is the most 
useful size. 

If the seat of trouble is not more than 15 Getting 
miles from the tool-house, the trackmen J° **?* 
upon being notified should start at once on 
their hand-cars, rousing those gangs whose 
houses they pass and who are not located 
near a telegraph office. When a large force 
is required it will probably pay to start an 
engine and car to pick up the most distant 
gangs, unless the wrecking train must pass 
over that track. 



224 



The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 



Wrecking 
force. 



Most roads have a regularly organized 
wrecking crew made up from the car re- 
pairers or some other class of men who are 
familiar with the construction of rolling 
stock, and it is not likely that the mainte- 
nance-of-way force will be called upon to 
do much independent work of this kind. 
Roadmasters and section foremen neverthe- 
less should familiarize themselves with the 
general features of clearing up wrecks of all 
kinds; how to move heavy weights, how to 
tie different kinds of knots, the best way of 
putting a derailed car on the track and the 
use of a block and tackle. 

Seven different kinds of knots are shown 
in Fig. 256. A is a square knot which will 




Fig. 256 — Rope Knots. 



not slip and is used in joining the ends of 
two ropes, but it is difficult to untie. Most 
persons in attempting to tie a square knot 
fail, and make a "granny knot," which will 
slip. The failure is due to winding the 
short ends together in the reverse way and 
a few experiments with a string will teach 
one how not to do it. B and are intended 
for the same purpose, and are alike except 
that the rope X takes one more turn in O 
than it does in B. These knots may either 
of them be used with a loop, as in B, to join 



Emergencies AND Train Signals. 225 

the ends of two ropes or to fasten a rope X Kaot». 
to the middle of a rope Y-Z as in C. E and 
G are two methods of fastening to a tree, 
post or cross tie. E is a slip-noose, and G 
is a bow-line loop, which does not slide. 
Both will untie readily with a large rope. 
F is intended to be used for attaching the 
end of a rope to the hook of a block. All of 
this will prove useful knowledge, not only 
when trackmen are called upon to do actual 
train-wrecking but in regular maintenance- 
of-w^ay work as well. 

For general purposes, tackle should con- Block and 
sist of a double sheave block and a snatch tackle, 
block, Fig. 257, rove with l^-in. manilla rope 
and a supply of IJ-in. rope for attaching 
the blocks to the work or to the anchorage. 




Fig. 257— Snatch Block. 

A snatch block should be used in preference 
to a solid block because in railroad work 
much valuable time is saved by the con- 
venience of being able to slip the rope under 
the hasp instead of having to reeve several 
hundred feet through the opening in an ordi- 
nary block. 

Frequently the tackle may be made fast to Anchors, 
a tree or stump in some adjoining field and 
at times the rail itself can be used as an 
anchor. If, however, the conditions require 
a pull in some direction where no strong 
hold can be obtained, either a "dead man" 
or some other form of anchorage must be 



226 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



prepared. To place "dead men" requires 
much time and a convenient form of porta- 
ble anchorage can often be used to advan- 
tage. The guy anchors shown in Fig. 258 
are made in different sizes and can be made 



4- 4- 

Fig. 258 — Guy Anchors. 



Duties at 
a wreck. 



Use of 
material. 



to penetrate hard soil to considerable 
depths by means of a bar pushed through 
the ring in the top and worked like a cap- 
stan. 

Upon arriving at the place where traffic 
is stopped, the first thing to do is to make 
sure that flagmen are so placed as to warn 
trains in time to prevent any further trou- 
ble. At a wreck, the trainmen themselves 
are expected to perform this duty but that 
fact should not prevent roadmasters and 
section foremen from seeing that the mat- 
ter is receiving attention. Safety is the first 
consideration in all questions connected 
with a railroad. 

The material for repairs should be got to- 
gether as soon as possible after the arrival 
at the trouble in order that the track may 
be made ready for trains as fast as the ob- 
structions are removed. Material should be 
used carefully at all times but in emergen- 
cies it may be necessary to ignore many 
ordinary ideas of cost for the sole object of 
putting the track and road-bed into a con- 



Emergencies and Train Signals. 



227 



dition for the resumption of traffic. For in- 
stance, in the case of a washout, it may be 
better to fill the opening with crib work 
built of new ties than to wait until dumping 
material can be secured. ^ 

In the meantime, those men who are not orderly 
doing flag duty, or absent after material, *»®*'*v*®»'- 
should turn in and help in every possible 
way. A ready obedience should be granted 
to the person in authority at the time, and 
no departmental jealousy should be allowed 
to interfere with the work in hand. Shout- 
ing and swearing by the foremen, grumbling 
or shirking by the men should not be per- 
mitted. Everyone on the ground should 
work hard, cheerfully and, with the excep- 
tion of those directing the work, in silence. 

If work must be done at night some Night 
powerful and steady light must be provided work, 
and for this purpose the portable petroleum 
burner shown in Fig. 259 is particularly 




Fig. 259 — V/ells Light. 



good. It gives a strong light and is not af- 
fected by the conditions of wind or weather; 
neither does it require much attention other 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Repairs to 
track. 



Car 
replacers. 



than keeping up the air pressure in the tank 
by occasional pumping. 

The track at a wreck should be roughly 
straightened as fast as the wreckage is 
cleared away but general repairs should not 
be attempted until the way is clear and no 
more car bodies or tenders are to be skidded 
on the rails or dragged along the ties. 

Steel rails which have been distorted in 
any way by a sudden blow are not safe to 
be put in the main track again unless they 
are cut and spliced at the bend, which is 
bad practice for it makes one more joint to 
keep up. They should therefore be taken 
out before fast traffic is resumed and re- 
placed with sound metal. 

The final repairs to a piece of damaged 
track should be made before withdrawing 
the men, even temporarily, if it is a possible 
thing. The track should be re-lined, re-sur- 
faced, fully spiked and bolted, and if it is a 
train wreck which caused the damage, that 
part of the wreckage which is of no value, 
should be got out of the way immediately, 
in order to remove it from the public eye, 
which is quick to see and comment on such 
things. 

On smaller railroads where there is no 
regular wrecking force, the trackmen will 
be forced to act in many cases which would 
ordinarily be out of their province. Under 
such conditions many tools will be required, 
not usuallv included in the maintenance-of- 




Inside Replacer. 
Fig. 260- 



Outside Replacer. 
-Alexander Car Replacer. 



Emekgexcies and Train Signals. 



229 




Inside Replacer. 
Fig. 261 — Fewings Car Replacer. 

way list. Among the most important of 
these is a car- replacer, and two of the many 
forms are shown in Figs. 260 and 261. 

Train Signals. 

It is essential that every roadmaster, su- 
pervisor and section foreman should be ac- 
quainted V, ith the rules governing the use 
of signals of all kinds and for this reason 
certain of the rules contained in the Stand- 
ard Code are inserted here as follows: 

All employees whose duties iimj require General 
them to give signals must provide them- m8truc= 
selves with the proper appliances, and keep **®°*' 
them in good order and always ready for 
immediate use. Flags of the proper color 
must be used by day, and lamps of the 
proper color by night, or whenever from fog 
or other cause the day signals cannot be 
clearly seen. 

Red signifies danger and is a signal to 
stop. 

Green (on some roads yellow) signifies 
caution and is a signal to go slowly. 

White signifies safety and is a signal to 
proceed. Roads using a yellow caution sig- 
nal use green for proceed. 

Green and white is a signal to be used to 
stop trains at flag stations for passengers or 
freight. 

Blue is a signal to be placed on a car or 
an engine to forbid its being moved. 



230 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

Torpedoes A torpedo placed on the top of the rail, is 
and fusees. ^ signal to be used in addition to the regu- 
lar signals. 

The explosion of one torpedo is a signal to 
stop immediately; the explosion of two tor- 
pedoes not more than 200 ft. apart is a sig- 
nal to reduce speed immediately, and look 
out for a danger signal. 

A fusee is a signal which may be used in 
addition to the torpedoes or other signals. 
When burning red it must not be passed 
by a train until it has gone out. When 
burning green it is a caution signal. 

A flag or lamp swung across the track, a 
hat or any object waved violently by any 
person on the track, signifies danger and is 
a signal to stop. 
Train flags Each train, while running, must display 
and lamps, two green flags by day and two green lights 
by night, one on each side of the rear of the 
train, as markers, to indicate the rear of the 
train. Yard engines will not display mark- 
ers. 

Each train running after sunset, or when 
obscured by fog or other cause, must dis- 
play the head-light in front, and two or 
more red lights in the rear. Yard engines 
must display two white lights instead of red 
on the rear, except when provided with a 
head-light on both front and rear. 

Two green flags by day and night and, in 
addition, two green lights by night, dis- 
played in the places provided for that pur- 
pose on the front of an engine, denote that 
the train is followed by another train, run- 
ning on the same schedule and entitled to 
the same time-table rights as the train 
carrying the signals. 

Two white flags by day and night and, in 
addition, two white lights by night, dis- 
played in the places provided for that pur- 
pose on the front of an engine, denote that 
the train is an extra. These signals must be 



Emergencies and Train Signals. 231 

displayed by all extra trains, but not by 
yard engines. 

A blue flag by day and a blue light by 
night, placed on or at the end of a car, 
engine or train, denote that men are at work 
under or about the car, engine or train. The 
car, engine or train thus protected must not 
be coupled to or moved until the blue signal 
is removed by the person who placed it. 

When a car, engine or train is protected 
by a blue signal, other cars must not be 
placed in front of it, so that the blue signal 
will be obscured, without first notifying the 
workman, that he may protect himself. 

One long blast of the whistle is the signal ^j^jgyg. 
for approaching stations, railroad crossings si^ais. 
and junctions (thus, ). 

One short blast of the whistle is the sig- 
nal to apply the brakes or to stop (thus, — ). 

Two long blasts of the whistle is the sig- 
nal to throw off the brakes (thus, ). 

Two short blasts of the whistle is an an- 
swer to any signal, except "train parted" 
(thus, ). 

Three long blasts of the whistle is a signal 
that the train has parted (thus, 

Three short blasts of the whistle, when 
the train is standing, is a signal that the 
train will back (thus, ). 

Four long blasts of the whistle (thus, 

) is the signal to call in a flag- 
man from west or south. 

Five long blasts of the whistle (thus,. 

) is the signal to call 

in a flagman from the east or north. 

Four short blasts of the whistle is the 
engineman's call for signals from switch- 
tenders, watchmen, trainmen and others 
(thus, ). 

One long followed by three short blasts of 
the whistle is a signal to the flagman to 



23^ The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

go back and protect the rear of the train 
(thus, ). 

One long followed bj two short blasts of 
the whistle is a signal to be given by trains, 
when displaying signals for a following 
train, to call the attention of trains to the 
signals displayed (thus, ). 

Two long followed by two short blasts of 
the whistle is the signal for approaching 
road crossings at grade (thus, 

-). 

A succession of short blasts of the whistle 
is an alarm for persons or cattle on the 
track, and calls the attention of trainmen 
to danger ahead. 
Hand and A lamp swuug across the track is a signal 
to stop. 

A lamp raised and lowered vertically is 
the signal to move ahead. 

A lamp swung vertically in a circle across 
the track, when the train is standing, is the 
signal to move back. 

A lamp swung vertically in a circle at 
arm's length across the track, when the 
train is running, is the signal that the train 
has parted. 

A lamp swung horizontally in a circle 
when the train is standing is a signal to ap- 
ply air-brakes. 

A lamp held at arm's length above the 
head when the train is standing is a signal to 
release air-brakes. 

A flag, or the hand, moved in any of the 
directions given above, will indicate the 
same signal as given by a lamp. 



lamp 
fiignals. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Fixed Signals. 

The practice of placing fixed signals on 
the line of a railroad is becoming so general 
that trackmen should be acquainted with 
the significance and appearance of the most 
common forms. No attempt will be made 
in this chapter to explain many details of 
construction; for the maintenance of signal 
plants on most large railroads is under a 
separate department. 

All of the railroad signals which will be Purpose of 
dealt with in this chapter are for the gen- signals, 
eral purpose of maintaining a safe interval 
of space between moving trains, in order 
that they shall not collide, and this is effect- 
ed in two ways. First, by interlocking sig- 
nals, which relate solely to trains running 
upon separate but converging tracks. Sec- 
ond, by block signals, which usually refer 
only to trains running upon the same track. 
The "signals" to be described, are devices lo- 
cated at fixed points, close to the line of a 
railroad, for telling the men in charge of 
a train whether or not the track they are 
upon is ready for their occupation beyond 
the point at which the signal is placed. 
These signals are said to "command," "gov- 
ern" or "control" the movement of trains 
over the tracks to which they relate, and 
trainmen are said to be "governed" or 
"controlled" by the signals as they pass 
from one point to another over the road. 

Interlocking signals are those which are 



234 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Inter- 
locking. 



made to work in connection with the shift- 
ing parts of a railroad track, such as mov- 
able frogs and switches. They are so ar- 
ranged that, first, no train shall proceed 
until all of the switches have been placed in 
their proper position; second, no train shall 
proceed until all other trains which might 
collide with it have been warned to stop; 
third, none of the shifting parts of a track 
can be moved so long as a signal gives the 
indication to proceed. The term "inter- 
locking," therefore, refers to the relation 
which exists between the movable parts of 
a system of tracks and the signals which 
control the operation of trains through that 
system. 



¥= 



M/l/fJ TffjiCH 



M^ 






\^ C-ABIN 

Fig. 262 — Single Track Joined by Side Track. 



Names of 
Signals. 



Inter= 

locking 

machine. 



Fig. 262 is a conventional drawing of a 
single main track joined by a siding. It is 
sufficient now to give the names of the dif- 
ferent parts, because their office and con- 
struction will be explained further on. In 
Fig. 262 numbers 2A and B and 7A are home 
signals; 7B is a dwarf signal; 1 and 8 are 
distant signals, 4 is a switch, 5 is a facing- 
point lock, while numbers 3 and 6 are not 
used but are retained as spare levers in the 
machine, Fig. 263. 

All of these devices are operated by a 
collection of levers placed side by side in a 
common frame. This collection is called a 
machine and is located in a building con- 
veniently situated (see Fig. 262) known as a 
cabin. Forming a part of the machine are 
various pieces spoken of as "the interlock- 
ers" which, following the motion of the 



Fixed Signals. 



235 



levers, interfere with each other after a cer- inter- 
tain predetermined manner and accomplish ^^^^^« 
the purposes of "interlocking.'' machine. 




Fig. 263 — Interlocking Machine. 



The signals used in interlocking are sem- oescrip^ 
aphores, that is, arms (also called blades) tion of 
projecting from ' a vertical post and so s'gnais. 
pivoted to it as to be capable of swinging up 
and down. Semaphores are of three styles, 
home, distant and dwarf. The home signal. 



236 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Home 
sis:nal. 



Fig. 264, is an arm about 5 ft. long by 8 in. 
wide with a square end, usually painted red 
on the face and white on the back; placed 
about 25 ft. above the rail and if possible 
to the right of the track which it controls. 




Fia. 264 — Home Signal. 

When more than one arm is placed on a 
post, as in the case of No. 2 in Fig. 262, the 
upper arm is for the most important track 
(sometimes called "route" in this connec- 
tion) and the lower arm is for all other 
routes which connect with that track and at 



Fixed Signals. 237 

the same time come under the control of Home 
that signal. The home signal is used only ^'s^"*'- 
for movements on main track. On double 
track, Fig. 265, the home signal is used in 
only one direction for each track. On single 
track, the home signal is used for both direc- 
tions, since trains are run in both directions. 
To indicate danger (see Fig. 264), the arm 
stands horizontally and usually shows a red 



-^%- 



DOUBLE Tff4CI 



Fig. 265 — Home Signals on Single and Double Track. 

light at night; to indicate safety the arm is 
inclined about 65 deg. from the horizontal 
and usually shows a white light at night. 

The distant signal. Fig. 266, is an arm Distant 
about 5 ft. long by 8 in. wide with a notched signal, 
end, usually painted green on the face and 
white on the back; placed at the same height 
as the home signal, from 1,200 ft. to 2,500 ft 
away from it, and on that side of the home 
signal first reached by the trains which it 
governs. It is used only in conjunction with 
some particular arm of a home signal, never 
alone, and merely for the purpose of warn- 
ing enginemen as to the probable position 
of that home signal. It indicates either cau- 
tion (go slowly) or safety by the positions 
shown in Fig. 266 in the day time. At night, 
caution is usually indicated by a green light 
and safety, usually by a white light. 

The signal posts shown in Figs. 264 and signal 
266 are made of wood but metal posts like p®^**- 
those used for block signals are much more 



238 



The Roadmasters' AssistanI?. 



permanent and are better in every way even 
though they are more expensive at first. 







Fig. 266— Distant Signal. 



Dwarf The dwarf signal, Fig. 267, is a blade 

signal. about 1 ft. long, with a square end, usually 
painted red on the face and white on the 
back. It is placed about 3 ft. above the rail 
and usually to the right of the track that 
it governs. It is used only for train move- 



Fixed Signals. 



239 



ments against the normal direction of the Owarf 
traffic on double main track, but never on "*»"■'• 
single track. It is also used to control all 
movements in any direction on "side" 
tracks. The dwarf signal usually gives its 
indicatio-ns by the same relative positions 




Dwarf Signal. 



of the blade and colors of the lamp that are 
used by the home signal. It never carries 
more than one arm and this arm governs all 
routes over which the signal has control. 

Within the last few years a new color color indu 
scheme for lighting semaphore blades has cations, 
been tested and adopted by several roads. 
Red is retained for the signal to stop, green 
indicates safety or proceed and a new color, 
yellow, is used to indicate caution. White 
as an indication of safety is abandoned and 
the danger of a red or green glass becoming 
broken and indicating proceed when there 
is danger ahead, is thus overcome. The 
practice of painting semaphore blades with 
some negative color instead of red, white or 
green, is also growing in favor. On the 
Pennsylvania Lines West, the front of the 
signal blades is painted yellow. 

On almost all railroads in this country. Pointing 
semaphore arms point to the right when o***™*- 



240 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

viewed from approaching trains which they 
govern, and, although a semaphore post may 
carry arms which govern trains moving in 

Fig. 268 — Semaphore Controlling Trains from Both 
Directions. 

i 

opposite directions, no two home signals 
which are located on the same post, as in 
Fig. 262, No. 2, can be lowered at the same 
time. 
Bracket ^q ordinary semaphore posts, such as are 
^^^^' shown in Fig. 262, Nos. 1, 2A and B, 7A and 
8, ever control trains moving on more than 
one track. When it is necessary to do so 
a special post called a "bracket-post" is pro- 
vided, see Fig. 269, where a siding stands so 

SIDE TR/tCH 



^u' 



Pig, 269— Braclset Post. 

close to a main track that it is impossible to 
place a post between them. The arm A 
therefore controls trains moving to the 
right on the main track and the "dummy" 
upright U, which carries a blue light at 
night, indicates that the side track is not 
signaled, 
fiovement In Fig. 262 all of the interlocked parts are 
of trains, ghown in what is called their "normal" posi- 
tion. This corresponds to the forward posi- 
tion of the levers in the machine. It will be 
noted that the signals are all at danger and 
the switch is set for the main track as indi- 
cated by the flare, thus : 



Fixed Signals. 241 

If the switch were set normally for the novement 
side track, a thing often done, it would be <>* trains- 
indicated by a flare, thus: 



In the case of the facing-point lock. No. 6, 
Fig. 270, since the switch is always un- 
locked when the facing-point lock lever is 
"normal" (that is "forward") and locked 






HRF 



Fig. 270 — Tracks and Signals. 

when the facing-point lock lever is "re- 
versed," or in other words "pulled back," 
the position of the facing-point lock needs 
no other indentification on the drawing 
than than merely to show its presence. 

If now a train bound for X were to ap- 
proach from Y, it should find the signals set 
as in Fig. 270, which, because the distant 
signal 1 and the home signal 2A are "in- 
clined" (also expressed as "cleared," 
"dropped," "lowered") would indicate that 
the main track route had been cleared 
throughout the system. A train bound from 
Y to Z would find the signals and switch 
as shown in Fig. 271. Here the bottom arm 



Fig. 271 — Tracks and Signals. 



B on home signal post, 2, must be lowered 
because the switch has been prepared for a 
"diverging route," that is a route which 



242 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

novement would carrj trains away from the most im- 
«< trains, portant track. The distant signal 1, must 
remain at caution for it cannot be cleared 
until the home signal, 2A, has been cleared 
previously. In both of the cases illustrated 
in Figs. 270 and 271 the facing-point lock, 5, 
must have been reversed before any of the 
signals could have been cleared, and this 
together v^^ith the relations between home 
signal, 2A, and distant signal, 1, are made 
unavoidable by means of the "interlocking" 
feature of the machine mentioned in the be- 
ginning of this chapter. A train coming 
from X, in Fig. 272, has but one route possi- 



B A 

Fig. 272— Tracks and Signals. 

ble and this is indicated as clear when the 
train reaches home signal 7A. It must have 
approached at a slow speed however for dis- 
tant signal, 8, was found at caution. A dis- 
tant signal cannot be cleared until after the 
home signal with which it works has been 
cleared, but there is nothing to force the 
clearing of the distant signal at all unless 
the signal man wishes it so. 

The last combination possible with the 
tracks shown in Figs. 270 to 273, is shown 
in Fig. 273 and is intended for the move- 



Fig. 273 — Tracks and Signals. 

ment of a train from Z to Y. In this case 
switch, 4, has been reversed previously and 
the dwarf signal, 7B, has alone been cleared. 



Fixed Signals. 243 

In each case the clearing of any home sig- 
nal has locked fast all of the other home 
and dwarf signal levers in the cabin, for it 
is evident that if 7A and 7B were cleared 
at the same time a collision might result. 
The same is equally true of the relations be- 
tween 2A and B and 7A and B. 

A particular meaning is attached to the Placing of 
way in which signals are shown on a plan ^^snai 
and this is further explained in Fig. 274. ^****** 



-i^ 



Fig. 274 — Placing of Signal Posts. 

Ordinarily signals B^ and B^ would stand 
at A in the form of a straight two-arm post 
or at H on a bracket-post shaped like D, but 
the first is impossible because the space be- 
tween the tracks is assumed to be insuffi- 
cient, and the second because of the freight- 
house which stands in the way. The arms 
are therefore placed on a bracket-post, 
pointing to the left, and are shown as white 
with black bands, w^hich is the appearance 
they present when seen from an approaching 
train which they do not govern, as would 
be the case if a train went towards them 
from 5. The function of signals C, D, E and 
K is plain from reasons before stated. D is 
evidently the distant signal for B^, and it 
is placed at D rather than at J, because if 
possible it is preferred to have all signals 
on the right of the tracks which they govern 
when viewed from an approaching train. 
This is not possible at L, so the dwarf signal 
for the "crossover" is placed at F, that is, on 



244 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Combina^^ 
tions of 
switches. 



the left of the track, 1 — 2, but with its blade 
pointing to the right and marked in black, 
showing that it controls trains moving from 
1 to 2 or 1 to 4. 

The simple "split switch/' the "derail/' the 
"double-slip" with or without the "movable 
frog," and the "single-slip" with or without 
the "movable frog," are all used in connec- 
tion with interlocking machines, and the 
way in which they are indicated on a plan is 
shown in Fig. 275. Here 1^, 4^ and 6^ are 




Fig. 275 — Switches and Frogs. 



simple "split switches," 2^ — 1^ — 2^ is a 
"single-slip with movable frog," 3^ — 3^ is a 
"double-slip with rigid frog," 4^ is a "mov- 
able frog" 6- is a "derail," and 5^ — 5^ an 
ordinary crossover formed of two simple 
split switches. Certain combinations of 
these arrangements may be operated from 
one lever in a machine and those combina- 
tions will now be described. The large fig- 
ures indicate those parts which are worked 
from the same lever as 1^ and V, while the 
small figures serve only to distinguish them 
from each other. All of the derails, frogs 
and switches are shown in their normal 
positions and are marked with the numbers 
of the levers which operate them. The small 
figures at the top of each number are for 
reference here and are not used in practice. 
The "crossover" 1^ — V is now set so that a 
train on tracks A or B would follow the 
straight route, but if set like 5^ — 5-, a train 
would be forced to go from one track to the 



Fixed Signals. 



245 



other; therefore both switches may be combina- 
worked from the same lever 1. This is also *'°^^ ®* 
the case with 1^ and 4^, which might prop- ^^'**'**®»- 
erly be worked together except for the fact 
that they would cut off all traffic on tracks 
B, C, D and E during the time they might be 
reversed. There is of course an inevitable 
limit to the number of switches that may 
be operated from one lever, which is deter- 
mined by the amount of power w^hich may 
be applied, and experience dictates, when 
switches are to be operated by a man, that 
not more than two, when arranged as 1^ — 1^ 
or four when arranged as 3^ — 3^, shall be 
connected, when the rail does not exceed 80 
lbs. per yard in weight. AVith the above in 
mind it is easy to understand the reason for 
the combinations in Fig. 275, remembering 
always that they are not the only ones pos- 
sible but are given because they are proper 
and serve the purpose of explanation. 

The facing-point lock, Fig. 276 (indicated Facing= 
as No. 5 in Fig. 262), consists of a casting ?»»"* >««•«• 
bolted to the ties in front of the point of a 



FRONT ROD 




Fig. 276 — Facing-Point Lock. 



switch, through which the lock-plunger and 
lock-rod slide at right angles to each other. 
The lock-plunger is connected directly with 
a lever of the machine in the cabin by means 
of cranks and 1-in. pipe, while the lock-rod 
is also connected with the machine but re- 
ceives its motion through the switch, to the 
front rod of which it is fastened. A com- 



246 The Roadmastees' Assistant. 

Facing, plete movement of the switch brings one or 
point lock. ^}2e other of the openings in the lock-rod into 
place in front of the lock-plunger, which, 
when it is reversed by its lever in the ma- 
chine, locks the switch fast. But if the 
switch be not given its full travel, the lock- 
plunger will impinge against the solid metal 
of the lock-rod. The lock-plunger lever will 
thus be prevented from completing its jour- 
ney and, the interlocking parts of the ma- 
chine being in consequence out of place, it 
will become impossible to clear the home 
signal. The facing-point lock therefore has 
two duties: first, to lock the switch if it is 
in the proper position and, second, to pre- 
vent the clearing of the home signal if the 
switch happens to be wrong. 
Detector- A detector-bar is almost invariably used 
bar*. with a facing-point lock and is assumed to 

be present unless it is specifically stated to 
the contrary. This device is illustrated in 
Fig. 277 and is seen (Fig. 276) to be con- 
nected with the same lever in the cabin 




Fig. 277 — Detector-Bar. 

which operates the facing-point lock. It is 
to prevent the unlocking of a switch while a 
car is standing over (straddling) a switch. 
This is necessary since any movement of a 
switch at such a time might result in a de- 
railment. The bar is a piece of iron or steel 
usually about 45 ft. long (which distance is 
expected to be greater than the greatest 
distance between any two wheels of a 
train), extending from the point of the 
switch as shown in Fig. 276. In this ar- 
rangement only one bar is necessary, but in 
Fig. 278, where it is back of the head-block 



Fixed Signals. 



24T 



of the switch, two bars must be used, since Detector- 
the train may be standing on either of the *'"*^- 
two tracks. The detector-bar. Fig. 277, is 
placed close against the rail with its top 
A — B, normally about ^ in. below the top 




Fig. 278 — Special Arrangement of Detector-Bars. 



and usually on the outside of the rail. It is 
supported on links pivoted at their bases in 
such a manner as to force the bar to rise 
about an inch as indicated by the dotted line 
above the rail, when it is moved back and 
forth by the detector-bar driving-rod. By so 
rising above the rail, the bar strikes any 
wheel which might be standing there and be- 
cause it is unable to follow its full course, 
prevents the facing-point lock from being 
withdrawn. 

On side-track switches and on trailing- switch 
point main-track switches, a device. Fig. and lock 
279, called a "switch-and-lock-movement" is "®^®= 
often used for combining the operation of a "*" ' 
switch, a lock and a detector-bar from one 
lever, instead of dividing it between two 
levers as in Fig. 276. It is an inferior meth- 
od but is cheaper and is only proper where 
the speed of trains is uniformly slow. The 
alligator-crank, A, and the slide-bar, B, are 
mounted upon the same base. To the arm of 
A is fastened the connecting rod of the 
switch, while to the slide-bar, B, are fas- 
tened the lock pins, L, the roller, R, the 
driving-rod of the detector-bar and the pipe 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Switch 
;and lock 
sinove= 
ament. 



connection to the cabin. With this arrange- 
ment, the lever in the cabin is in one of its 
extreme positions, the switch is set for the 
main track and is held there by the lock 
pin, L^, which is seen projecting through the 




Fig. 279 — Switch and Lock Movement. 



lock-rod. Ui)on moving the lever in the 
cabin, B is pushed to the left, which imme- 
diately operates the detector-bar and L^ is 
withdrawn. In the meantime R is sliding 
along the face F^, of the alligator-crank, but 
no movement in the switch takes place until 
B reaches the face F^. By this time the 
lock, L^, is entirely clear and the detector- 
bar has reached its highest position above 
the rail. Then R forces A around until F^ is 
parallel with B. This corresponds with the 
new position of the switch and takes place 
just before L^ enters the opening in the lock- 
rod, which together with the complete low- 
ering of the detector-bar is the last opera- 
tion of the movement. The same sequence 
of action takes place when B is moved in 
Ihe opposite direction. 

A "bolt-lock," Fig. 279, is sometimes used 
as a check on the action of a switch-and- 
lock-movement (occasionally elsewhere) and 
consists of a rod (the extension of the lock- 
rod) and a bolt-lock. Its purpose is to pre- 
vent the clearing of a signal should the 
switch not be exactlv right. To each end of 



Fixed Signals. 



249 



the bolt-lock is connected the wire which Boit=iock. 
joins the signal to its lever in the cabin. In 
Fig. 279, the signal has been cleared because 
the bolt-lock is seen to have entered the 
opening in the lock-rod, but if the opening 
had not stood directly opposite the bolt-lock, 
that piece would have impinged against the 
solid metal of the rod and its further move- 
ment have been stopped, while as a result 
the signal would have remained at danger. 

It remains to mention but one more of the selector. 
devices used in interlocking, before proceed- 
ing to a description of the machine, and that 
one is the "selector." Its object is to reduce 




Fig. 280 — Selector. 



the number of levers in a machine by ena- 
bling two or more signals to be operated 
from the same lever, and its essential parts 
are illustrated in Fig. 280. Theoretically, 
any number of signals which govern trains 
moving in the same direction may be oper- 
ated from a certain lever of a machine, if 
but one of those signals can properly be 
cleared at the same time. Practically not 
more than seven or eight signals are ever 
operated from the same lever. A selector 
is always described according to the number 



250 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

Selector, of switches in connection with which it 
works and not with regard to the number of 
signals, for in Fig. 281, although switches 1 



^SUkC 



Fig. 281 — Selection of Signals. 

and 2 regulate the selectors for 3 signals 
(A) in one direction and for two signals (B) 
in the other direction, yet a "2- way selector'' 
is used in each case. This is so because al- 
though there are three routes, signal B^ is 
cleared when whichever of the switches 1 or 
2 is set for the divergent route. In conse- 
quence of this rule the selector of Fig. 280, is 
a "1-way." A box, S, Fig. 280, contains two 
hooks, H, (three in a 2- way, four in a 3-way, 
etc.) which form the connection with the 
signal wires, a lug, L, (only one lug is used 
for all "ways") and a driving rod, D, (a sep- 
arate driving rod is used for each switch 
and the number in a selector therefore cor- 
responds exactly with the size, 1-way, 2-way, 
etc., of the selector). The crank, 0, connects 
D with the line of pipe which joins the 
switch with its lever in the machine, and D, 
consequently acts in accordance with the 
motion of the switch lever. Through a hole 
in D, L is loosely passed so that although 
it is moved by D laterally, nothing prevents 
the longitudinal motion of L. As the draw- 
ing is made, the switch stands for the main 
track and L is connected with H^ (the main- 
track signal hook). If the switch should be 
reversed by moving its pipe to the left, D 
would force L into connection with H^ and 
L then being moved to the left would re- 
sult in lowering B^. 



Fixed Signals. 



251 



Switches, facing-point-locks, detector-bars Pipccon= 
and switch-and-lock-movements together nections, 
with a few other special devices, should be 
operated always, where man-power is used, 
by iron or steel, seamless pipe, having an 
internal diameter of 1 in. and an external 
diameter of IJ in. These pipes are placed 
side by side, 2f in. center to center, and are 
supported in "pipe-carriers," Fig. 282, con- 




FiG. 282 — Pipe Carrier. 

taining rollers at the top and bottom which 
confine the pipe and reduce the resistance to 
its motion. Changes in the direction of a 
pipe line are usually made by "bell-cranks,'^ 
Fig. 283, which rest upon the base and re- 




FiG. 283 — Bell-Crank. 



volve about the center. At the ends of the 
arms, J, the pipe is connected by means of 
"jaws," Fig. 284, which constitute the com- 
mon method of attaching a pipe to some 
other article. The pipe is passed over the 
"tang" and is screwed into the sleeve, S. 



252 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Wire con- Signals Only, should be operated by wire 
nections. jj^^j ^j^jg should be of No. 9 galvanized steel, 



[ivQi 



Fig. 284— Jaw. 



supported in "wire-carriers," Fig. 285, which 
are provided with rollers for the wire to rest 
upon. The changes in the direction of a 




Fig. 285— Wire Carrier. 



line of wire are made by inserting into the 
line a piece of J-in. chain with short links, 
and passing the chain around a wheel, Fig« 
286, which has a fixed center. 




Fig. 286— Chain Wlieel. 



Adjust- Both pipe and wire will vary in length as 

ment. the temperature changes and through other 

causes; they should therefore be provided 

with turnbucldes, Fig. 287, to provide for 



cziCJC 



iV/RE /IDJU STING SCREW 




PIPE /IDJUSTING SCREW 

Fig. 287 — Pipe and Wire Adjusting Screws 



Fixed Signals. 253 

small adjustments. It is desirable also that compen- 
they shall be automatically compensated «»*o»*8. 
but up to the present time, no perfectly sat- 
isfactory automatic wire-compensator has 
been devised. The ordinary pipe-compensa- 
tor, the "lazy-jack," is shown in Fig. 288. 




Fig. 288 — Pipe Compensator ("Lazy- Jack"), 



The ordinary manual interlocking ma- inter- 
chine, Figs. 263 and 289, consists of a frame ^"^^'""je 
to support the other parts, a series of levers ""*^**"*®- 
for operating the different switches, signals, 
etc., and the interlocking mechanism which 
permits the movement of a lever at certain 
times. In Fig. 289, L is one of a series of 
levers, E its lever-shoe, H a latch-handle, R 
a latch-rod, K a latch-block, C a rocker, N a 
rocker-link, S a locking-shaft and B a lock- 
ing-bar, all belonging to that lever. In any 
machine a series of levers are placed 5 in. 
center to center, side by side in a frame. 
Each lever is fastened to a lever-shoe which 
is supported in the frame by a horizontal 
pin at P. L is shown in the drawing in the 
normal position ; when reversed it coincides 
with the dotted line. The signals, switches, 
etc., are joined to the short arm of L at its 
lower end. H is pivoted at its lower end to 
L and when grasped by the hand, raises R, 
which in turn raises C by means of the 
block K. C is pivoted to the frame at V so 
that, when raised at K by R, it assumes a 
position circumferential to P; since it is 



254 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Inter- 
locking 
machine. 



formed on a curve whose radius is equal to 
K — P, it permits K to move through it freely 
as L is thrown forward and back. When L 
has been reversed, H is released, E is low- 
ered and assumes a third position. When 



% 



^Rd 



p 

Fig. 289- 



-Interlocking Lever and Mechanism. 



L is normal, the righ-hand end of G is de- 
pressed. During the movement of L, the 
two ends of are the same height, while 
when L is reversed and H released, the left- 
hand end of is depressed. As L passes 
backward and forward between its two posi- 
tions, K passes over a stop which prevents 
it from being lowered during any movement 
of L. 



Fixed Signals. 255 

The vertical action of C causes N to be inter= 
raised or lowered (depending upon whether ^^^^^« 
L is to be moved from the normal or re- "* 
versed position). Since N is connected with 
the crank-arm A, of the horizontal locking- 
shaft S, it transmits the rise and fall of N 
to S, in the form of a rotary motion. 
Mounted upon B is a filling block, G, fitting 
into the driver, D, which is fastened rigidly 
to S. The rotary motion of S is thus trans- 
formed to a horizontal movement in B, 
while the final relation between the latch H 
and the locking-bar B, is completed in the 
same way as the three positions of C are 
communicated to B. From the preceding 
it follows that when L is changed from the 
"normal," B first moves to the left, then 
stops and finally completes its movement to 
the left. The contrary takes place when L 
is changed from the "reverse." The inter- 
locking parts are mounted upon and are 
operated directly by the locking bars B, 
which are arranged in such a way that by 
the movement of any lever, all other levers, 
which if moved might in any way interfere 
with the train which it is intended to signal, 
are locked fast. 

The details of the "interlocking" proper Powering 
are however, too complicated to permit of teriocking. 
explanation in a book not solely devoted to 
that subject and it must be taken for grant- 
ed that the objects which are sought are 
successfully accomplished. 

The principal devices used in manual in- 
terlocking having been described it remains 
to mention the other methods of operation. 
In the principles of the "interlocking" 
mechanism all of these are very similar and 
the chief differences are in the methods of 
transmitting or controlling the power for 
operating the signals and switches from the 
tower or cabin. The power interlocking sys- 
tems are not numerous and human skill 



256 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

Po(werin» must in any event be the means of intelli- 
teriocking. gently Controlling the forces brought into 
play since it is self evident that "interlock- 
ing" cannot become entirely automatic. 
They may be divided into two general 
classes, the Westinghouse electro-pneumatic 
system and a number of all-electric systems 
chief among which is the Taylor. In the 
Westinghouse system, all switches and sig- 
nals are moved by compressed air supplied 
through pipes from a central compressor 
plant and the valves which control the ap- 
plication of the air are in turn controlled by 
electro-magnets. The machine is most in- 
genious, combining in itself all of the usual 
interlocking features, together with certain 
electrical checks on the mutual operation of 
the switches, signals and machine levers. 
The system finds its best field at large in- 
stallations where it is particularly success- 
ful because of the great rapidity with which 
the changes in combinations may be made 
and because of the few lever-men who are 
required. 

In the all-electric machines every function 
is performed by electricity, the switches and 
signals being moved by electric motors con- 
trolled by the switches in the interlocking 
machine in the tower. 

Block Signaling. 

Block It will be remembered that in the defini- 

Bisrnaiing. tiou of "interlocking" it was stated that the 
object of that branch of signaling is to pre- 
vent collisions between trains which are 
running upon separate but converging 
tracks, that is, tracks which either cross 
each other or join each other through the 
medium of a switch. In block-signaling the 
problem is quite different since its object is 
to control the movement of those trains 
which are moving upon the same track and 
this includes both single track, where trains 



Fixed Signals. 



2|>7 



may be either approaching or following 
each other, and double track where trains 
oply follow each other. To accomplish the 
separation of trains, a railroad is divided 
into sections of approximately equal length, 
called "blocks," with a signal placed at the 
beginning of each block. When a block is 
occupied, its signal should be in the danger 
position and when a block is empty, its sig- 
nal should be in the clear position so that a 
train may enter. This is block-signaling pure 
and simple. 

The signals used in block-signaling are Block 
preferably of the same appearance and s^smai^- 
meaning as those w hich have been described 
and illustrated wit]i Figs. 264 and 266. 



Fig. 290 — Electric Semaphore Signal. 
(Union Switch & Signal Co.) 

There is consequently no reason for describ- 
ii^g them a second time since every state- 
ment made concerning their functions in in- 



258 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



signals. 



sema= terlocMng applies equally to block-signal- 
?wJ!.« ing. Until within a few years ago, "sema- 
phore" signals (the term used to describe 
signals having an "arm") were only used 
where compressed air could be applied to 
operate them as in the Westinghouse elec- 
tro-pneumatic system, or where they could 
be manually operated by the signal man in 
the tower. Perfectly automatic semaphores 
which are moved by electric motors are now 
in general use and have proved themselves 
to be entirely reliable and satisfactory. A 
special form of metal post on which to 
mount such signals, has been designed and 
is also being used for signals at interlocking 
plants as well. The post shown in Fig. 290 
rises from an enclosed metal box which con- 
tains the motors for operating the blades 
and the batteries for supplying current. For 
manual interlocked signals the box is 
omitted and the usual chain-wheels or bell- 
cranks, take its place. 



Fig. 291 — Banjo Signal. (Hall Signal Co.) 

Banjo The "banjo" signal. Fig. 291, is also oper- 

flignai. ated wholly by electricity and consists of a 



Fixed Signals. 259 

transparent colored screen, enclosed in a 
case, which shows through the opening of 
the case when the signal is at danger (or 
caution for a distant signal) and is with- 
drawn from sight when the signal indicates 
safety. A lamp which shines through the 
small, upper opening in the case illuminates 
the signal at night. 

Nearly all purely automatic block-signals Track 
are controlled by what is known as the circuit. 
*'track circuit." This consists in having 
the rails in each "block" on the same 
side of the track, connected with each 
other electrically by short pieces of wire. 
The blocks are electrically insulated by 
placing insulating material between the 
end rails and angle-bars of adjacent 
blocks. At one end of each block the 
last rails on the two sides of a track are 
joined by a wire in which an electric battery 
is placed, and at the other end of each block 
is placed a wire containing a track relay 
which controls the signal governing that 
block. This establishes an electric circuit 
which operates in such a way that, when a 
train occupies a certain block, the signal 
governing that block is cut out and forced 
to exhibit danger because the electric cur- 
rent is cut out from it by the presence of the 
train on the track. 

Switches are also included in the track ^ 
circuit so as to cause the signal to show' 
danger in case the switch is not set and 
locked for the main track. 

Nearly all makers of rail joints are pre- insulated 
pared to furnish special insulated joints for Jo*ot«» 
connecting the rails at the end of blocks. 
Two forms of such joints are shown in Figs. 
292 and 293 in which the insulating mate- 
rial (usually some kind of compressed fibre) 
is shown by the heavy black lines. The 
maintenance of the track circuit in a nor- 
mal condition also requires that all hand- 



260 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Insulated 
jolntsv 



cars have the wheels insulated from each 
other so as not to set the signals to danger 
when the car is run out over the road. 
Track gages should also be insulated for the 
same reason. 




Fig. 292 — Bonzano Insulated Rail Joint. 




Fig. 293 — Atlas Insulated Rail Joint. 



Care of 
appli- 
ances. 



In all work about a railroad, trackmen 
must be especially careful about changing 
in any way the operations or material of an 
interlocking or block signal plant. A mis- 
take in this matter, such as the breaking of 
a piece of wire, may result not only in de- 
lays and inconvenience, which will be trou- 
blesome, but even in the loss of life. Re- 
pairs which require the movement or tem- 
porary abandonment of any signaling ma- 



Fixed Signals. 261 

terial should if possible be made under the care of 
direction of a man connected with the sig- *pp"' 
nal force and a sufficient notice should '"**** 
therefore be given whenever any such work 
is contemplated. Ignorant interference in 
signaling matters is more apt to result dis- 
astrously than in most other branches of 
railroad affairs and it should for that reason 
be more carefullv avoided. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

Rules and Tables. 

Railroad spikes are usually packed in spikes, 
kegs weighing 150 lbs. or 200 lbs. each. The 
spikes of common size, 5J in. long by 9-16 in. 
square, run 280 to the 150 lb. keg. In other 
words, each spike weighs a little more than 
ilb. 

Track bolts are more frequently packed g^,^^ 
in kegs containing a certain number of bolts 
rather than a certain number of pounds. 
The ordinary bolt with its nut weighs about 
1 lb. 

Rails are always sold by the "gross ton" ^^.,g 
of 2,240 lbs., as distinguished from the "net 
ton" of 2,000 lbs. 

Sawed, white oak cross ties, 7 in. x 9 in. x ^^^^^ ^^^^ 
8 ft. 6 in., weigh about 195 lbs. each; 6-in. x 
8-in. X 8-ft. 6-in. ties weigh about 150 lbs. 
each. Hewed ties of the same dimensions 
weigh considerably more than the amounts 
given. Ties when purchased at a distance^ 
are received loaded on cars, which may be 
expected to contain from 150 to 250 ties^ 
each. 

An ordinary flat car 33 ft. long by 8 ft. capacity- 
wide, with temporary sides 1 ft. high will »< cars- 
carry about 18 cubic yards of loose material 
without spilling; without sides about 8 
cubic yards. A gondola 33 ft. long by 8 ft- 
wide by 3 ft. 3 in. high, when loaded full but 
not heaped up, will carry about 32 cubic 
yards. 



264 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 






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Rules and Tables. 295 

Every roadmaster and section foreman Decimals 
should be equipped with a tape-line 50 ft. ■"<* 
long, divided into feet, inches, halves and '■*'***"•• 
quarters of an inch. But there should also 
be provided for the special work which will 
fall upon the roadmaster, a steel tape-line 
which is divided into feet, tenths and hun- 
dredths of a foot. All railroad surveyors 
in this country now use the last-named ar- 
rangement, which does away entirely with 
vulgar fractions, substituting for them the 
^'decimal point." Fig. 294 represents a foot 



INCHES. TWELFTHS 



Fig. 294 — Comparison Between Inches and Tenths of a Foot. 

measure which is divided according to these 
two methods. The upper line contains 
twelve equal parts which are called 
"inches." The lower line, although exactly 
the same length as the upper one, contains 
but ten equal parts and these are called 
"tenths." If now a tenth of a foot is divided 
into ten parts, each of the last-named parts 
will equal a hundredth of a foot, and again 
if each hundredth of a foot is divided into 
ten parts, one of these parts will equal a 
thousandth of a foot. 

The great advantage of the "tenths" is 
seen when it is necessary to add, substract, 
multiply or divide several figures. Suppose 
that it is necessary to add 3 ^^ ^^-f ^S i^-> 
7 J in. and 9^ in., and get an answer in feet, 
inches and fraction. It is first necessary to 
change all these vulgar fractions to six- 
teenths, then add up the sixteenths, then 
divide the sum by 16 and add the result to 
the inches: then the inches must be added 



266 The Roadmasteks' Assistant. 

up and divided by 12 to get them into feet. 
The answer is 2 ft. Iff in. But by using 
the decimal parts of a foot and adding them 
together like this, 



5f =0.469 
7i = 0.625 
9i -= 0.771 

2.151, 

the answer is got by one operation and is ex- 
pressed as two, and one hundred and fifty- 
one thousandths, feet. In multiplication and 
division the use of "tenths'' simplifies the 
operation still more. 
Use of By means of Table II all of these figures 

Table II. niay be got in a moment; look in the column 
headed 3 in., opposite yV and .286 will be 
found; that is, tw^o hundred and eighty-six 
thousandths of a foot. Or taking another 
figure, .625, suppose that it is desired to 
know how many inches this equals. Look in 
Table II until .625 is found, when it will be 
seen that it is under 7 and opposite |, which 
means 7^ in. If a number must be used at 
any time which does not exactly agree with 
the numbers in the table, as for instance 
.364, then look for the nearest to it which is 
seen to be .365 ; this equals 4f in. Thus it is 
evident that this table may be used either to 
convert inches to decimals of a foot or deci- 
mals of a foot to inches. 
Erecting a It is necessary for every trackman to 
periMia. know how to "erect a perpendicular," or in 
other words how to lay out a line at right 
angles from a certain point on another line. 
In Fig. 295, let A— B be the first line, 0— D 
the second line and A the point from which 
the perpendicular is to be erected. Take a 
tape and have the end and the 12-ft. mark 
held together at A; have the 3-ft. mark held 



dicular. 



Rules and Tables. 



267 





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268 



The Roadmastebs' Assistant. 



Erecting a on the Same line at D, then when the tape 

perpen- jg stretched and brought to an angle at the 

8-ft. mark as at B, the line joining A and B 

will be perpendicular to C — D at A. It is 

seen in Fig. 295, that the numbers 3, 4 and 



Letting 
fall a 
perpen- 
dicular. 



Fig. 295 — Erecting a Perpendicular. 

5 are the lengths of the different sides of the 
triangle A B D. If the figures 3 — 4 — 5 are 
not convenient, anv multiple of them maj 
be used instead, if they are all multiplied by 
the same number as for instance 6 — 8 — 10 
which are multiples of 2, or 9 — 12 — 15 
which are multiples of 3. 

To "let fall a perpendicular" or in other 
words to lay out a line from a point A, Fig. 
296, at right angles to another line — D, 
take a tape or any other cord longer than 



C ~^ . B ^ 

Fig. 296 — Letting Fall a Perpendicular. 

the distance between A and B and hold one 
end at A. Have the other end carried first 



Rules and Tables. 



269 



to and a mark made there, next to D and 
a mark made there. Then if a mark be 
placed exactly half way between G and D at 
B, the line A — B will be prependicular to 
C— D from A. 

Curves are commonly spoken of with ref- Degree of 
erence to the angle at the center, subtended «««'v«. 
by a 100-ft. chord. This idea is illustrated 
in Figs. 297 and 298, the first of which rep- 



^^-£o^_^^ 



Fig. 297— Six-Dogree 
Curve. 



Fig. 298 — Nine-Degree 
Curve. 



resents a 6 deg. curve and the second, a 9 
^Q^. curve. 

To find the degree of curve in a railroad Finding 
track, take a line exactly 62 ft. long and <»«»'««<»* 
stretch it so that the ends just touch the ^"'^*- 
gage side of the outside rail as in Fig. 299; 



.^ 



"T==^ 



l^ 



XMdo^ 



I 



Fig. 299 — Method of Finding Degree of Curve 



then at the center of the line (31 ft. from 
each end) measure from the line to the gage 



curves. 



270 The RoADMASTERs' Assistant. 

side of the rail and the number of inches 
found will equal the degree of the curve. 
That is, if the distance is 3 in., as in Fig. 
299, it will be a 3 deg. curve, if 4J in. a 4J 
deg. curve. By this process the proper ele- 
vation for a curve may be found approxi- 
mately and at any time, with nothing but a 
measuring tape or a foot rule and ditching- 
line. 
Laying Long picccs of track which follow a new 

o"t line and do not run parallel to any old track 

should, if at all important, be first located 
with a transit; but short tracks even when 
on a curve may be quite accurately staked 
out with a tape line by means of the "versed 
sine'^ method or with the assistance of Table 
III, which gives the deflections for curves 
up to 20 deg. 

The simplest way of running curves is 
known as the "versed sine" method; and is 
illustrated in Fig. 300. It has the advantage 
of requiring no tables and scarcely any ef- 
fort of memory, while at the same time it is 
as correct as any plan can be in which no 
transit is used. 

Assuming that there are two tangents 
K — A — C and B — C which it is desired to 
connect by means of a regular curve, the 
first thing to do is to mark the exact place 
where the tangents come together at 0. 
This is readily accomplished by setting up 
two thin stakes on each tangent and sight- 
ing them in until is found to be in both 
lines. The drawing represents a side-track 
B— J— E— G— A— K which starts at the 
frog point B where it is tangent to the frog 
rail and proceeds on a regular curve to A 
where it is tangent to the straight line 
A— K. 

After having located C it is necessary to 
find the distance to the nearest point from 
which the curve must start, remembering al- 
ways that the further A and B are from 0, 



Rules and Tables. 



271 



the easier the curve will be. If, as in the Laying 
drawing, the curve must begin not further ®"* 
gfway than the frog point, that fact at once *^"'^®** 
limits the distance B — C but if the curve is 
removed from any other track and is to join 
two simple tangents then there is no reason 
why it should not begin anywhere else back 
of A or B as at K. 

When the distance C — B has been deter- 
mined, next mark the distance — A exactly 
the same as C — B; lay off the straight line 
A — B and place a stake at A exactly half 
way between and exactly in line with A — B. 
Then measure the distance C — D; exactly 
half way between and exactly in line with 




Fig. 300 — Versed Sine Method of Laying Out Curves. 



C and D place the stake E. This stake will 
be on the curve. Next join A — E and half 
way between place the stake F; join E — B 
and half way between place H, then on a 
line perpendicular to E — B at H, lay off 
F— G and H — J, each of them exactly one 
quarter of the distance from E to D. The 
stakes at B — J — E — G and A are then all of 
them in the line of a curve which is tangent 
to straight lines at A and B. 

If the curve is not more than 200 ft. long, 
these five stakes are enough to locate it but 
if for any reason more points are needed, 
they may easily be supplied by joining A 
and G, G and E, E and J, J and B by 



272 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Layiog 

out 

curves. 



straight lines; then exactly half way on 
these lines and perpendicular to thern, lay 
off other points one quarter of the distance 
between G and F. 

Sometimes an obstruction or the char- 
acter of the ground will interfere with pro- 
ducing both of these tangents as far as G, 
in which case a recourse must be had to an- 
other plan which is equally correct but, be- 
cause it involves the use of Table III and re- 
quires the location of more points, is not 
quite so convenient. 

Like the preceding plan, the one now to 
be described will usually be needed for lay- 
ing out new side tracks and, because of thi^, 
the curve is shown in Fig. 301, as beginning 
at a frog. There is no reason, however, if 




Fig. 301 — Laying Out Curves. 



the circumstances are different, why the 
curve should not begin at any other point, 
in which case the 50-ft. spaces may be laid 
off and the curve located in exactly the same 
way, except that there will be no frog to 
start from. 

In Fig. 301, the line D represents the 
^^tangent" (the straight line from which the 
curve starts) which is parallel with the out- 
side gage line of the frog, and 2 ft. 4J in. (or 
2 ft. ^ in. with a 4-ft. 9-in. gage) distant 
from it. This is the most correct way but 
if it be preferred, the "line of frog" may be 
used as the tangent with results which are 
practically just as good. In consequence of 
this offset, C is on the center line of the new 
track at the frog. Since it is best to start 
the curve at the heel of the frog, C is located 



Rules and Ta?jles. 



273 



opposite that place and becomes the point Laying 
of curve. and D are marked on the *>"* 
ground by slender sticks about 4 ft. long. *="'^®*' 
set upright. Beginning at C, in line with 
these two sticks, lay off the 50, 100, 150-ft., 
etc., marks and then at these last named 
points erect the lines F, Gr and H perpendic- 
ular to the line C — D, according to the rule 
given in connection with Fig. 295; mark 
these lines with stakes at F, G and H and 
also beyond where the curve is likely to 
reach. On F, G and H lay off the distances 
given in Table III for the curve that has 
been decided upon. If it is to be a 10 deg. 
curve the radius will be 574 ft. long and the 
respective distances on the lines F, G and H 
in Fig. 301, will be 2.2 ft., 8.8 ft. and 20.0 ft. 
This method is sufficiently accurate for all 
ordinary purposes if care is used in locating 
the different points. 

In order to find out what curve is required 
from a certain tangent in order to strike a 
certain point in a railroad track, the same 
method already described may be used or 
else the reverse of it which is as follows. 
Suppose for instance that in front of a fac- 
tory, as in Fig. 302, from a tangent A — O it 




Fig. 302 — Laying Out Curves. 



is desired to lay off a curve which will not 
reach beyond C and will be tangent to the 
line of frog near E. First stake off the 



274 



The RoADMASTERrs' Assistant, 





i 

O 


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Rules and Tables. 27 

tangent A — C — K parallel with the factory Laying 
and locate the 50 ft. points beginning at 0. ®"* 
Erect the perpendiculars at F, G and H and *^"*'^®*' 
then by means of Table III, lay off any 
curve, as — B, which is a 6 deg. curve. 
This is too flat so next a 12 deg. curve, C — D 
is tried; this proves too sharp but after con- 
tinual trials the right one will be found 
Avhich in Fig. 302 is seen to be C — E or a 10 
deg. curve. 

Frequently in this method, it will be 
found that the curve, although it strikes 
near E, will not fit the frog. In this case the 
point must be moved nearer to E and new 
curves tried until the right one is found. 
But no matter what trouble is experienced 
at first, let it be remembered that any track- 
man can use this table successfully if he 
will only try. 

In bending rails to fit the curves at curving 
switches and in the main track, Table IV »"»•*»• 
will be found useful. 

Fig. 303 represents a 26 ft. rail which is 
to be made to conform to an 11 deg. curve. 
Take a line and stretch it on the gage side 



j^ 6/2 j^. _ e^' »i 



Fig. 303 — Bending Rails. 

of the rail head from one end of the rail to 
the other ; mark the middle at A, 13 ft. from 
each end, and the quarters B and 0, 6^ ft. 
each from the middle and the ends. Accord- 
ing to Table IV, when the rail is properly 
bent, the perpendicular distance A (middle 
ordinate) from the line to the rail head will 
be 2 in., while B and (ordinates at the 
quarters) will each of them be f of this dis- 
tance, which is 1^ in. 

Frogs which are used with a switch, are Frog 
most often described by their numbers, but an™***" 
sometimes according to the angle formed by angles. 



276 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



TABLE IV. — Middle-Ordinates for Curving Rails. 

(Ordinates at the quarters are % of Middle-Ordinates.) 



§ 






LENGTH OF RAILS 


(Feet), 






§ 


ii 


















r-i ^ 


30 1 


28 1 


26 1 24 i 22 1 20 


18 


16 


14 


12 1 


10 


ii 


I N € H E S. 


1° 


i 


fV 


A 1 I s 


tV 


tV 


tV 


tV 


tV 


1° 


2" 


h 


tV 


1 A i 4- 


tV 


i 


^ 


tV 


tV 


2° 


8<> 


Ti 




T6" Te" 8 T6" 


i 


i 


tV 


i 


A 


3° 


4° 


tI 


8 


1 £ 4 i 




5 


i 


tV 


i 


4° 


5" 


lA 


ItV 


1 1 1 tV 




3 

8 


i 


A 


i 


5° 


6° 


ItV 


n 


ItV it H- i 


1 


re" 


A 


i 


A 


6° 


70 


li- 


H 


U ItV i 1 
ItV lA ItV i 


s 


4 


« 


i 


A 


70 


8" 


1— 


m 


H 


A 


4 


A 




8° 


9° 


^8 


n 


If If n H 




5 

8 


4 




J 


9° 


lo- 


H 


iiiV 


iUn ItV ItV 


i 


H 


A 


i 


i 


10° 


ir 


n 


2i 


2- IH ItV ItV 


If 


1 


t 


tV 


A 


11° 


12° 


n 


ai 


2tV l+f ItV li 


ItV 


8 


5 

5 


4 


A 


12° 


18" 


^iv 


!iH 


2^2- 1H1| 


1^ 


II 


li 


4 


1 


13° 


14" 


^A 


IJ^ 


n 2| iHH 


ItV 


1- 


J 


A 


1 


14° 


15° 


^A 


H 


mn HI ItV 


ItV 


ItV 


II 


5 

s 


tV 


15° 


16° 


H 


h\ 


21 2t^2tV1H 


li 


u 


7 


5 

5 


A 


16° 


17° 


4- 


H 


3tV 2iV 2tV 111 


ItV 


HV 


H 


A 


17° 


18° 


4i 


3H 


3tV m 2tV If 
3-1 2| 2t-V2- 


ItV 


H 


H 


li 


4 


18- 


19° 


H. 


Bi 


Is 


ItV 




s 


4 


19° 


20° 


H 


H 


3tV3- 2TV2i 


1-11 


1| 


HV 


n 


A 


20° 


21° 


H* 


4A 


3| 3A2ii2TV 


113 


HV 


1^ 


7 

s 


A 


21° 


22° 


5A 


4* 


3il 3tV 2H 2J^ 


14 


lA 


1 


tV 


22° 


23° 


5A 


44i 


4tV 3tV 2H 2| 


HI 


HV 


HV 


H 


5 

8 


23° 


24° 


^ 


4^ 


4i 3| 3^V2i 


2tV 


Hi 




H 


s- 


24° 


25° 


51 


5g 


4tV3| 3^-4,25 


n 


i| 


lAi- 


li 


25° 


26° 


6t\ 


SA 


4?^ 32 3A2ii 


2tV 


Hf 


H 


1- 


li 


26° 


27° 


6i\ 


54 


4| 4tV3tV2M 


2tV 


11 


lA 


HV 


li 


27° 


28° 


6tV 


5H 


m ^t\ 3tV 2il 


2-1 


m 


lA 


1^ 


3 


28° 


29° 


6i| 


51 


51 4| 3| 3- 


2tV 


2- 


14 


H 


1 


29° 



Rules and Tables. 277 



the two running rails; this latter method is Frog 
always used when speaking of crossing 
frogs. 

The number of a frog is determined by 
dividing distance, B, in Fig. 304, into dis- 
tance, A, remembering always to use the 



numbers 

and 

angles. 




Fig. 304 — Frog Numbers and Angles. 

true (or "theoretical") point of the frog; this 
is not the end of the rails but may be found 
by Ikying a straight edge on each gage side 
of the frog and marking the place where the 
straight edges come together. As an ex- 
ample let it be supposed that A equals 48 
in., and B equals 8 in. Then 48 divided by 
8 equals 6, and the frog is therefore a No. 6. 
Since the object of this calculation is only 
to find the proportion existing between the 
length and the width of the frog, a divided 
measure is not at all necessary for making 
it; anything, a lead pencil or a stick, which 
is shorter than the width of the frog at the 



278 



The Roadmastees' Assistant. 



Frog 
numbers 
and 
angles. 



Switch 
leads. 



heel, will do. Place the article where its 
length is exactly equal to the distance be- 
tween the gage lines and measure with it 
from there to the true point. The number 
of lengths made in the last measurement is 
equal to the number of the frog; that is, if 
the place from which the measurement 
started is six times as far from the point as 
the lead pencil is long, it is a No. 6. frog. 

When only the angle of a frog is known 
and the number is also desired, first reduce 
the angle to minutes (there are 60 minutes 
in a degree) and then divide 3,440 by the 
number of minutes. The result will equal 
the number of the frog. 

Example: What is the number of a 5 deg. 
44 min. frog? 

5 deg. 44 min. = 5 X 60 + 44 = 344 min. 
3,440 divided by 344 = 10. That is, a No. 10 
frog. 

Conversely, when only the number is 
known and the angle is also desired, divide 
3,440 by the number of the frog and reduce 
the result to degrees and minutes. 

Example: What is the angle of a No. 8 
frog? 

3,440 divided by 8 = 430 min., and 430 di- 
vided by 60 = 7 if = 7 deg. 10 min. That 
is, a 7 deg. and 10 min. frog. 

A common rule for the calculation of a 
switch lead is to multipy twice the gage of 
the track by the number of the frog. This 
rule is well enough for the shorter leads, but 
in the case of a No. 10 frog, it amounts to a 
distance of 94 ft., which besides being un- 
necessarily great, requires that the point of 
the switch rail shall be planed to a too fine 
point. The method of calculating has there- 
fore been changed in the table contained in 
this volume. It will be noticed in Table V 
that an 18-ft. point is provided for the Nos. 
11 and 12 split switch leads. This was done 
because those two frogs are seldom used 



Rules and Tables. 279 

except where trains are expected to run switch 
fast; in that case, the easier the bend in the ******* 
main track, the better. With the Nos. 4 and 5 
split switches a 10-ft. point is arranged for, 
because these frogs should not be used ex- 
cept to make the lead as short as possible; 
hence the necessity of contributing to this 
object in every legitimate way. In deter- 
mining the leads and cross distances of all 
the switches, a regular curve is assumed to 
begin at the heel of the switch and continue 
to within exactly 5 ft. of the theoretical 
point of frog. It is believed that with the 
distances shown in Fig. 305 and the corre- 
sponding amounts in Table V, any of the 
switches named there, may be put in ac- 
curately and without difficulty. The dis- 
tances A, B, and D are all of them to be 
marked with chalk on the main track rail, 
measuring from the theoretical point of frog 
as a starting point. Then at these places and 
from the gage side of the main track rail to 
the gage side of the side track rail, the dis- 
tances a, b and c are to be laid off perpen- 
dicular to the main rail. The distance d, of 
course, is the gage, minus the offset of 6 in. 
for split switches, and the gage, minus the 
5-in. throw for stub switches, since these are 
constant distances for all numbers of frogs. 
For convenience, the diagrams (Fig. 305) are 
shown with a straight main track; but it is 
to be understood that if the main track is 
curved, the degrees of curves and the radii 
of the side track rail will be different from 
those named in Table V. If the frog is in 
the outer rail of a curved main track, the 
degree of curve of the lead will be equal to 
the degree of curve given in the table, minus 
the degree of curve of the main track. If 
the frog is in the inner rail of a curved main 
track, the degree of curve of the lead will 
equal the degree of curve given in Table 
V, plus the degree of curve of the main 



280 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



fTfrjff 



CO 



^J 



-■o—f— 



Rules and Tables. 



281 



+j 


-;-> 


fe 


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e 


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00 




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«5 






£ 


<35 


lO 


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282 The Roadmasters' Assistant. 

track. The distances along the main track 
rail and the cross distances will remain, for 
all practical purposes, the same as though 
the main track were straight. 
Three= The Combinations which are possible be- 

***'^^h tween two switches are so numerous that 
5W1 c es. ^^ table can be framed which will begin to 
meet the requirements. With split switches 
these combinations are infinite as is evident 
from Fig. 306, where the three bases of pro- 
cedure are illustrated. In A, which is com- 
paratively rare, the points begin at practi- 
cally the same place which results in a lead^ 
to all intents, the same as that of a three- 
throw stub switch. This is the plan fol- 
lowed in Table VII. B assumes that the 
frogs are placed opposite each other and 
that the switch-point of the short lead is far 
enough back of the other switch-point to 
leave room for the "throw" and the attach- 
ment of the connecting-rod. This is not a 
very rational method since it leaves too 
small a choice of frogs to meet the special 
cases which will arise. Plan is the one 
which offers the greatest variety. Since a 
three-throw switch should never be used if 
there is any way of putting in two entirely 
separate single switches this plan is the 
best one of the three that have been de- 
scribed. It is not only the best because it 
permits the greatest variety of leads but 
because it more nearly secures the same 
track conditions that exist when two entire- 
ly separate leads are used."^ Although, as 
has been stated, it is impossible to frame a 
table fulfilling these conditions. Fig. 307 and 
Table VII present one method of putting in 
both split and stub 3-throw-switches. 



*In that useful work "Switch Layouts and Curve Ease- 
ments," published by The Railroad Oa4sette, Mr. Torrey 
has included nearly a hundred diagrams of various three- 
throw switch leads which contain all the information 
necessary for putting them in, together with a table of 
switch-timbers for each one. Table IV. is adapted from 
this work. 



Rules and Tables. 283 




Fig. 306— Methods of Arranging Three-Throw Split-Switches. 



284 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



TABLE VI. — Number of Switch-Ties for Use with Tables 
V AND VII. 

1 — Head-Block 8 in. by 12 in.— 16 ft. long with each Single Split and 
Stub Switch and each Three-Throw Stub Switch. 

2 — Head-Blocks 8 in. by 12 in. — 16 ft. long with each Three-Throw 
Split Switch. 



All other Switch-Ties 7 in. by 9 in.- 
Standard Cross-Ties 8 ft. 6 in. long. 



-20 in. center to center. 



Number of Frog. 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 




Feet 
Long 

' 9 
10 


Number of Pieces 7 in. by 9 in. 




Stub Switch 


1 


1 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


2 2 




Split Switch 


6 


6 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


11 11 


SINGLE 




6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


10 


11 


12 13 




Alike 


11 


3 


4 


6 


6 


7 


9 


9 


11 11 


SWITCHES 


for Split 


12 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


« 


7 


9 9 




and Stub 


13 


2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


7 8 




Switches 


14 


3 


3 


3 


5 


4 


5 


6 


6 7 




. 


15 


2 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


6 


6 8 






'stub Switch 


9 






Split Switch 


3 


3 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 5 




Stub Switch 


10 


3 


3 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


5 6 




SpUt Switch 


5 


5 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


9 10 






11 


2 


3 


5 


5 


5 


5 


6 


7 8 


THRE 


E- 


Alike 


12 
13 


2 
2 


3 

2 


3 
3 


4 
3 


4 
4 


5 
4 


5 
4 


6 6 
5 5 


THRO 


w ' 


for 


14 
15 


1 

1 


2 
1 


2 

2 


3 

2 


3 
3 


4 
3 


4 
4 


5 5 
4 4 


SWITCI 


lES 


Split 


16 
17 


1 
2 


2 
1 


2 
1 


2 
2 


2 

2 


2 
3 


3 
3 


4 4 
4 4 




and 


18 


1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 4 






19 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 4 




Stub 


20 


1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


2 


3 


3 3 




Switches 


21 

22 
Feet 


2 
1 


1 

2 


1 

2 


2 
2 


2 
2 


3 
3 


3 
3 


3 3 
3 4 






Long 


















Number of Prog. 


4 . 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 



Rules and Tables. 



285 




I*-— Middle Frog to Main frog - 
It-Head Block to Middle Froq —^ 

Stub Switch. 



W- Hcfld Block to Middle Freq- 



»«■ — Middle Froq to Main Froq * 



Split Switch. 
Fig. 307 — Diagram to Accompany Table VII. 



TABLE VII. — Thbee-Throw Split and Stub-Switch Leads. 

Offset at heel of Split Switches = 6 inches. 

Throw of Stub Switches = 5 inches in each direction. 

Left-hand Split Switch to be placed 18 inches in advance of Right- 
hand Split Switch. 



§1 


Middle 
Frog 
Anglb. 


Middle 

Fhoo to 

Main 

Frog 


Head Block to 
Middle Frog. 


Switch Rail Length 


§ 5 

g3 


SplitSw'ch 


StubSw'ch 


SplitSw'ch 


StubSw'ch 


Beg. Min. 


Feet Inch. 


Feet Inch. 


Feet Inch. 


Feet Inch. 


Feet Inch. 


4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

10 
11 


22-58 

17-52 

14—30 

12—14 

10—38 

9-28 

8-32 

7-40 

7—04 


15—2^ 

18-OM 

20-91^ 

23-6 

26—2 

29— 0^ 

31-7K 


24—9 

28-0 

38—4 

41—7 

44—41/2 

47—0 

49—5 

57 3 


16—6 

19—51/2 

25—81/2 

29—1 

31—10% 

34— 61/2 

37—0 

42—1^2 

44—8 


10-0 10—11" 
10—0 12—9 
15-0 16—8 
15-0 18—6 
15—0 20—8 
15—0 23—4 
15-0 25—0 
18 '^^ " 


12 


59—6 


18—0 


25—0 



286 



The Roadmasters' Assistant. 



Locating 
frogs. 



The ordinary rule for determining the dis- 
tance between frogs in crossovers is to sub- 
tract twice the gage from the distance be- 
tween centers and multiply the result by 
the number of the frog. This does perfectly 
well for frogs of large number but is not 
close enough for Nos. 4 and 5 frogs. As for 
example — 



Distance between centers = - - 13.00 ft. 
Gage = 4.71 ft. Twice 4.71 = - 9.42 ft. 



Number of frog : 



3.58 
4 

14.32 ft 



That is, 14 ft., 4 in. from frog to frog along 
the main rail. 

But Table VIII, under the heading of 13 
ft. between centers of tracks, gives this dis- 

TABLE VIII. — Distance D. Prog to Prog along the Main 
Rail in Cross-overs — Gage, 4 ft. 8% in. 



*'h 


Distance Between Centeks of Tracks. 




Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


11-0 


11-6 


12-0 


12-6 


13-0 


13-6 


14-0 


4 


5-7 


7-6 


9-6 


11-5 


13-5 


15-4 


17-4 


5 


7-4 


9-9 


12-3 


14-8 


17-2 


19-7 


22-0 


6 


9-0 


12-0 


14-11 


17-11 


20-10 


23-10 


26-9 


7 


10-8 


14-1 


17-7 


21-1 


24-6 


28-0 


31-5 


8 


13-4 


16-3 


20-3 


24-3 


28-3 


32-2 


36-2 


.. 9 


13-11 


18-5 


22-11 


27-5 


31-10 


36-4 


40-10 


10 


15-6 


20-6 


25-6 


30-6 


35-6 


40-5 


45-5 


11 


17-3 


22-8 


28-2 


33-8 


39-2 


44-8 


50-2 


12 


18-9 


24-9 


30-8 


36-8 


42-8 


48-7 


54-7 




Fig. 308 — Diagram to Accompany Table VIII. 



Rules and Tables. 287 

tance as 13 ft. 5 in., a difference of nearly a 
foot. In placing the frogs according to the 
above rule, or Table VIII, first let fall a 
perpendicular from one of the frog points, 
A, Fig. 308, to the nearest rail of the other 
track at B. From B lay off the proper dis- 
tance D; then C will be the location of the 
other frog point. 



INDEX. 



A. 

Adjustment (interlocking), 

252. 
Alexander car replacer, 228. 
American nut-lock. 128. 
American Steel & Wire Co., 

fence, 22. 
gate. 23. 
American; Trackbarrow, lorry 

car, 174. 
trackbarrow, 173. 
American Talve & Meter Co., 

switch stand, 219. 
Anchors, 225. 
Anchor fence post, 24. 
Angle bars (see rail joints). 
Atlas insulated rail joint, 260. 

offset splice, 148. 
Auger post-hole digger, 186. 
Avery steel fence post, 26. 



B. 

Ballast, 81. 

cars, 93. 

car capacity for, 263. 

cleaning. 88. 

conveyors, 83. 

crushers, 84. 

distributing, 89. 

drains, 99. 

elevator, 88. 

for new embankments, 87. 

forks, 180. 

gravel. 89. 

heaving, 99. 

kinds of, 81. 

napping hammer, 181. 

picks, 180. 

plow, 93. 

quantities per mile, 264. 

screen, 87. 

sections, 100. 

size of stone, 84. 

stone, 82. 

tamping bar, 181. 

unloader, 93. 
Banjo signal, 258. 
Barnhart ballast plow, 93. 
Barrett track jack. 104. 
Barschall rail joint, 132. 
Bell-crank, 251. 
Bending (see curving rails). 



Block and tackle, 225. 
Block signaling, 256. 

banjo signal, 258. 

insulated rail-joints, 259. 

semaphore signal, 257. 

track circuit, 259. 
Bolts (see track bolts). 
Bolt-lock, 248. 
Bond steel posts, 25, 40, 41, 42. 
BoNZANO anti-creeper, 156. 

insulated rail joint, 260. 

rail joint, 135. 
BoYER & Radford track jack, 

104. 
Bracket post, 240. 
Bridge floor, 73. 

ballasted, 74. 

protected, 76. 

shimming, 76. 
Bridge warning, 44. 
Bryant rail-saw, 165. 
BuDA F'd'y & M'f'g Co., cross- 
ing gate, 46. 

hand car. 171. 

track drill, 163. 
Bumper, braced spring, 35. 

clamped, 34. 

curved rail, 34. 

Ellis, 35. 

Gibraltar, 36. 

"Solid," 36. 

timber, 35. 
Bush cattle guard, 28. 

interlocking bolt, 71. 



Car replacers, 228. 
Cattle guards, 28. 

Bush, 28. 

Kalamazoo. 28. 

Merrill-Stevens, 29. 

National-Surface, 29. 
Caution signs, use of, 18. 
Chain wheel, 252. 
Chicago tie-plate, 108. 
Chicago Bridge & Iron Co., 
tie treating retorts. 111. 

water tank, 51. 
Chisel (see rail chisel). 
Churchill rail joint, 137. 
Clamp, for tape line, 177. 
Claw bar, 182. 
Clearance of structures, 33. 



290 



Index. 



Climax fence post, 24. 
Columbia lock-nut, 129. 
Comfort of men, 5. 
Compensator, 253. 
Competition, 6. 
Continuous rail joint, 136. 
CouGHLiN swing-rail frog, 215. 
Creeping rails, 155. 
Creosoting timber, 110. 
Crossings, bells, 44. 

gate (pneumatic), 45. 

narrow-angle, 207. 

open highway, 29. 

rigid, 206. 

signs, 38. 

steam and street railroad, 
206. 

wide-angle, 208. 
Cross ties (see ties). 
Culverts, cleaning, 2. 

pipe, 72. 

wooden, 72. 
Curves, degree of, 269. 

easement, 154. 

elevation on, 151. 

elevation of, on bridges, 
153. 

laying out, 270. 

radii and offsets, 274. 

tapering off, 152. 

widening gage on, 154. 
Curving rails, 158. 

ordinates for, 276. 

D. 

Damage, cause of, 17. 
Decimals of a foot, 265. 
Detector bars, 246. 
DiLwORTH - Porter tie - plate, 

108. 
Discipline, 5. 
Distant signal, 237. 
Ditches, cleaning, 2. 

paving, 62. 

slope, 64. 

straight, 59. 
Ditching, machine, 61. 

methods, 61. 

time for, 59. 

tools, 184. 

wasting soil, 62. 
Dormant sod, 64. 
Drains, pole, 64. 

tile. 62. 

varieties of tile, 63. 
Drainage, 59. 

of highway crossings, 30. 
Drills (see rail drills). 
Duff system for laying rail, 
125. 



Dump car, Goodwin, 97. 

Rodger, 95. 
Dwarf signal, 238. 



E. 

Easement, on curves, 154. 
Eclipse automatic switch stand, 

218. 
Elevation of outer rail (see 

curves) . 
Elevator for loading ballast, 

88. 
Elliot Frog & Switch Co., 
rail brace, 155. 

spring-rail frog, 214. 

switch stand, 220. 
Ellis bumping post. 35. 
Ellwood woven-wire fence, 21. 
Embankments, preserving, 66. 

slope of, 65. 

sodding, 64. 
Emergencies, 223. 

material for use in, 6, 223. 
Equilibristat, 152. 
Erie Railroad, ballast sections, 

100. 
Eureka nut-lock, 128. 

spring rail frog, 214. 
Expansion joints, 157. 
Excelsior nut-lock, 328. 
Extra men, 3. 
Eyeless tools, 180. 



F. 

Facing-point lock, 245. 
Fairbanks, Morse & Co., foot- 
guard, 204. 

gasoline motor car, 169. 

push car, 172. 

velocipede car. 167. 

water crane, 54. 
Federal tie-plate, 108. 
Fence, 19 (see wire fence). 

gangs, 26. 

gates, 23. 

stretching. 27. 
Fence-posts, 24 (see posts). 
Fewings car replacer, 229. 
Filling blocks. 156. 
Finishing up, 1. 
Fires, 17. 20. 
Fisher offset splice, 147. 
Fixed signals. 233. 
Flag holder, 187. 
Foot-guards. 203. 
Foremen, as laborers, 14. 

residence, 14. 



Index. 



291 



Frogs, angles and numbers, 189, 
277. 
anvil-faced, 210. 
Coughlin swing-rail, 215. 
Eureka spring-rail, 214. 
inspection, 2. 
movable, 205. 
putting in, 286. 
rigid bolted, 210. 
rigid plate, 209. 
rigid yoke, 209. 
spring rail. 210. 
Strom clamped, 211. 
Vaughn spring-rail, 213. 



G. 

Gage, joint spacing, 146. 

slope, 66. 

track, 174. 

widening, 154. 
Gangs, combining of, 12. 

floating, 10. 
Gas engine pumping plants, 

51. 
Gasolene motor inspection 

cars, 169. 
Gate, farm, 23. 
Gates rotary crusher, 85. . 
GiBEALTAR bumping post, 86. 
Goodwin dump car, 97. 
Grass, 3. 
Gravel, ballast, 89. 

distributing, 89. 

pits, 89. 
Grip nut, 130. 
Guard rails, 201. 

fastener, 203. 



H. 

Haarmann-Vietor rail, 123. 
Hall Signal Co., banjo signal, 

258. 
Hammers, 181. 
Hand cars, equipment of, 4. 

types of, 171. 

use and abuse of, 4. 
Harp switch stand, 222. 
Harvey nut-lock, 128. 
Hawks offset splice, 147. 
Heaving of track, 99. 
Hedges, 19. 
Highway crossing, 29. 

bells, 44. 

drainage, 30. 

gates, 46. 

old-rail protection, 30. 

open, 29. 

signs, 39. 



Hollow tires, 17. 
Home signals, 236. 
Hydraulic ram, 51. 
tools, 160, 161, 163. 

1. 

Inches and decimals, 265. 
Industrial Works, pile-driver 

car, 79. 
Insulated joints, 260. 
Interlocking, 234. 
levers, 243. 
machine, 234. 
power, 255. 
Taylor electric, 256. 
Westinghouse electro -pneu- 
matic, 256. 
International Fence & Fire- 
proofing Go.'s woven- 
wire fence, 21. 
Intoxicants, 6. 

J. 

Jacks (see track jacks). 
Jack-knife switch stand. 221. 
Jaw stone crusher, 85. 
Jaws (interlocking), 252. 
Jenne track jack, 104. 
Jim crow rail bender, 159. 
Joints (see rail joints). 
Jones & Bayliss, lock nut, 
130. 



K. 

Kalamazoo cattle guard, 28. 
gasolene motor car, 170. 
Knots, 224. 



L. 

Lamps, signals, 232. 

switch, 221. 
Laying planks, 30. 
Lazy-Jack, 253. 
Leads for switches, 279. 
Lidgerwood unloader, 94. 
Light Inspection Car Co., in- 
spection car, 168, 170. 
Lining bar, 182. 
Lock nut, 129 (see nut locks). 

M. 

McKenna process for re-rolling 

rails, 122. 
McMuLLEN woven-wire fence, 

22. 



292 



Index. 



Mail ceane, 37. 
Material, care of, 150. 

extra, 223. 

location of, 6. 

quantities per mile, 264. 

use of, 226. 
Mattock, 179. 
Merrill-Stevens cattle guard. 

29. 
Metal posts, 24. 

signs, 40. 
Mile posts, 42. 
Monument, 42. 
Motor inspection cars, 169. 

N. 

Napping hammer, 181. 
National surface cattle guard, 
29 

nut iock, 128. 
New road, finishing, 1. 
New York Central ballast 

sections, 102. 
Norton ball-bearing jack, 177. 

track jack, 104. 
Nuts, quantities per mile, 264, 
Nut locks, 127. 

quantities per mile, 264. 

O. 

Offset splices, 147. 
Oliver grip nut, 130. 
Opposite and broken joints (see 

rail joints). 
Organization, 9. 

P. 

Page woven-wire fence, 21. 
Paint, 43. 
Pegs in ties, 117. 
Pennsylvania Railroad, bal- 
last sections, 101. 
Pennsylvania Steel Com- 
pany, automatic switch 
stand, 218. 
reinforced switch, 193. 
Perpendiculars, erecting, 266. 

letting fall, 268. 
Pettibone, Mulliken & Co., 
automatic switch stand, 
219. 
clamped frog, 211. 
reinforced split switch, 194. 
slip joint, 158. 
stub switch chair, 201. 
switch-throw adjustment, 

199 
track drill, 162. 



Picks, 179. 

Pile-driver car, 79. 

Pinch bar, 182. 

Pipe and wire adjusters, 252. 

carriers, 251. 
Platforms, 31. 
Pneumatic interlocking, 255. 
Poage water crane, 55. 
Pole drains, 64. 
Posts, 24. 

Anchor, 24. 

Avery, 26. 

Bond steel, 25. 

Climax, 24. 

distances apart, 26. 

metal, 24. 

mile, 52. 

signal, 237. 
Post-hole diggers, 186. 

shovels 186. 
Protected bridge floor, 76. 
Promotion, 7. , 

Pumps, 51. 

Punch (see rail punch). 
Push car. 172. 

Q. 

Q & C rail bender, 160. 
Q. & W. tie-plate, 108. 

R. 

Rail, benders, 158. 
braces, 154, 200. 
continuous, 126. 
chisel, 164. 

counting and turning, 143. 
creeping, 155. 
curving, 158. 
cutting, 162. 
defects, early, 119. 
drills, 162. 
Duff's system, 125. 
ends, 140. 

expansion device, 157. 
fastenings, 127. 
forms and comparisons, 121. 
fork, 187. 

Haarmann-Vietor, 123. 
long, 125. 

McKenna process, 122. 
manufacture of, 122. 
punch, 161. 

quantities per mile, 264. 
re-laying, 146. 
re-rolling, 122. 
saws, 164. 
sections, 119. 
short pieces, 150. 
spacing, 146r 



Index. 



293 



Rail, time to relay, 149. 

tongs, 187. 

unloading, 143. 
Rail joints, 131. 

Barschall, 132. 

Bonzano, 135. 

cast and welded, 140. 

Churchill, 137. 

Continuous, 136. 

expansion, 157. 

insulated, 260. 

offset, 147. 

opposite and broken, 150. 

ordinary Thomson, 137. 

six-hole angle bar, 132. 

slip, 158. 

suspended and supported, 
139. 

Thomson 100 per cent., 134. 

Weber, 135. 

Wolhaupter, 133. 
Rainy days, 13. 
Ramapo Ikon Works, auto- 
matic switch stand, 217. 
Ratchet drills, 162. 
Re-ballasting, 96. 
Re-laying rails, 146. 
Renewal of ties, 115. 
Reports, 4. 
Re-railing device, 75. 
Retaining walls, 67. 

foundations for, 69. 
Reverse pointed spike, 71. 
Road (highway), 31. 

macadam, 31. 
Road-bed, sections, 59. 
RoADMASTER, duties of, 7, 
Roberts Car & Wheel Com- 
pany, foot guard, 203. 

hand car, 172. 

push car, 173. 

velocipede car, 169. 
Robinson - Wharton switch, 

190. 
Rodger ballast car, 95. 

plow car, 95. 
Routine vvork, 12. 
Rules and tables, 263. 

S. 

"Scissors" post - hole digger, 

186. 
Section, house, 33. 

length of, 10. 

number of men on each, 9. 
Selector, 249. 
Semaphore signals, 258. 
Servis tie plate, 108. 
Sheffield, foot guard, 204. 

water crane, 54. 



Shims, 117. 

Shimming on bridges, 153. 

Shovels, dirt, 183. 

ditching, 184. 

post-hole, 186. 

snow, 183. 

steam, 90. 
Sign, bridge, etc., 39. 

caution, use of, 18. 

crossing, 38. 

letters, 43. 

metal, 40. 
Signals, block, 256. 

distant, 237. 

dwarf, 238. 

fixed, 233. 

interlocking, 234. 

hand, 232. 

home, 236. 

indications, 239. 

lamp, 232. 

posts, 237. 

purpose of, 233. 

train, 229. 

whistle, 231. 
Six-hole angle-bar, 132. 
Sledges, 181. 
Slip joint, 158. 
Slip switch, 204. 
Slope ditches, 64. 

gage, 66. 

of banks, 65. 
Snow shovel, 183. 

storms, 3. 
Sodding banks, 64. 
"Solid" bumping post, 36. 
Spike, holes, 161. 

maul, 183. 

quantities per mile, 264. 

reverse pointed, 71. 

screw, 127. 

size, weight, etc., 263. 

various patterns, 127, 
Spiral nut lock, 129. 
Split switch, 191. 
"Standard" guard rail fasten- 
er, 203. 
Station, fence, 22. 

grounds, 47. 

platforms, 31. 

roads at. 31. 
Steam shovel, 90. 
Stone ballast, 82. 

crusher, 84. 

crushing plant, 87. 

quarries, 83. 

size of, 84. 
Street-railroad crossing, 208. 
Stringers, 71. 
Strom clamped frog, 211. 
Stub switches, 201. 



294 



Index. 



Summer work, 15. 
Super-elevation, 151. 
Surface cattle guards (see cat- 
tle guards). 
Swing-rail frog, 215. 
Switches, adjustment, 198. 

chair, 201. 

inspection. 2. 

lap-point, 195. 

leads for, 278. 

reinforcement, 191. 

Robinson-Wharton, 190. 

rods, 191. 

slip, 204. 

split, 191. 

stub, 201. 

three-throw, 195. 

throw of, 195. 

timbers for, 284. 

varieties of, 189. 

Wharton, 189. 
Switch and lock movement, 

247. 
Switch lamps, 221, 
Switch stands, 216. 

Eclipse, 218. 

for stub switches, 221. 

for three-throw switches, 
220. 

ground, 219. 

high automatic, 217. 

harp, 222. 

jack-knife, 221. 

low automatic, 217. 

Ramapo, 217. 
Switch-throw adjustment, 198. 



T. 

Tamping-bar, 181. 
Tape line, 176. 
Tapering off, 152. 
Testing water, 49. 
Thomson rail joint, 100 per 
cent., 134. 

ordinary, 137. 
Thew Automatic Shovel Co., 

steam shovel, 92. 
Ties, concrete, 113. 

counting, 115. 

disposal of, 116. 

inspection, 105. 

insulation, 114. 

kinds of timber, 107. 

lining up, 114. 

metal, 112. 

preserving, 110. 

quantities per mile, 264. 

removing, 115. 

renewing, 15. 



Ties, sawed or hewed, 106. 

seasoning, 107. 

size and quality. 106. 

spacing, tamping, etc., 115. 

spiking, 118. 

time to renew, 116. 

time for cutting, 107. 

triangular, 113. 

use of pegs, 117. 

weight, 263. 
Tie plates, 108. 
Tie-plate gage, 109. 
Tile drain, 62. 

shovel, 184. 

varieties of tile, 63. 
Tools, 167. 

care of, 188. 
Trackbarrow, 173. 
Track, bolts, 150. 

chisel, 164. 

circuit, 259. 

gage, 174. 

inspection, 3. 

jacks, 104. 

level, 175. 

quantities of bolts per mile, 
264. 

signs, 37. 

tank, 57. 

walkers, 13. 

weight of bolts. 263. 
Train signals, 229. 
Traveling rail bender, 159. 
Treating water, 50. 
Trees near track, 2. 
Trestle, 77. 

ballasted, 74. 

erecting, 78. 

typical, 77. 



U. 

Union Switch & Signal Co., 
semaphore signal, 257. 
switch - throw adjustment, 
198. 
Unloading rails, 143. 

methods for ballast, 93. 
plow, 93. 



Vaughn spring-rail frog, 213. 
Velocipede cars, 167. 
Verona nut lock, 128. 

rail bender, 160. 

track gage, 174. 
Vulcan Iron Works Co., 

steam shovel. 91. 



Index. 



295 



W. 

Ware tie-plate gage, 109. 
Watchmen, 13. 
Water crane, pit, 57. 

Poage, 55. 

Sheffield, 54. 
Water, supply, 49. 

care in designing, 5o. 

gas engine pumping plants. 
51. 

hydraulic ram, 51. 

pipe, 53. 

storage reservoir, 51, 

tank, 51. 

testing, 49. 

track tank, 57. 

treating plants. 50. 
Waterways, opening up, 1. 
Watson & Stillman Co.. jack. 
178. 

rail bender, 160. 

rail punch, 161. 

spike slot punch, 163. 
Way-freights, use of, 12. 
Weber offset splice, 149. 

rail joint, 135. 
Weeds, cutting, 16. 
Weir Frog Co., expansion de- 
vice, 157. 



Weir Frog Co., rail brace, 155. 

reinforced 3-throw switch, 
197. 

switch stand, 220. 

switch - throw adjustment, 
199. 
Wells light, 227. 
Wharton switch, 189. 
Whistle signals, 231. 
Whitewash, 43. 
Widening gage on curves, 154. 
Windmills, 50. 
Winter work, 14. 
Wire carriers, 252, 
Wire fences, 20. 

American Steel & AYire 
Co.'s, 22. 

barbed wire, 23. 

Ellwood woven-wire, 21. 

International. 21. 

McMullen woven-wire, 22. 

Page woven-wire, 21. 

station, 22. 
Wolhaupter, rail joint, 133. 

tie plate, 108. 
Work trains, 11. 
Wrecking force, 224. 
Wrecks, duties at, 226. 
Wrenches, 178. 



Q and C-Bonzano Rail Joint 




Greater depth of the splice bars is necessary to 
form a splice approximating the strength of the rail. 

The Joint has the same strength as the unbroken 
rail. 

The vertical wave movement of the track will be 
continuous. 

It has simplicity of angle bars and requires less 
maintenance. 

The Joint has long passed the experimental stage 
and has been in service five years. 

OVR TR.ACK DEVICES ^ 

Q and C— Priest Snow Tl^niers 
Q and C— SaLinson R.aLil Benders 
Q ar\d C-PortSLble Ra^il Sslws 
Feivirvgs Catr and Engine Replaccers 
Oldsmobile Railroad Inspection Cars 
American Guard Ra^il Fatsteners 



RAILWAY APPLIANCES COMPANY 



CHICAGO 



NEW YORK 



Barrett Track Jacks 

are the recognized Standard, and 
are adapted to every track purpose. 

Adopted Specifically by the Roadmas'ers' Ass'n of America 




EASILY 

HANDLED 

POSITIVE 



IVo. 17.— Single Acting 
Track Jack. 



No. 6.— 15-Ton 
Trip Ballast 
Gang Jack. 

QUICK= 
ACTING 

RELIABLE 



Genuine ** BARRETT JACKS " are made 
only by this Company. Other Jacks repre- 
sented to be the same are cheap imitations, 
poorly constructed and unreliable. 



SEND FOR COMPLETE CATALOG 

THE DUFF MANIFACTIRING CO. 



Works, ALLEGHENY, PA. 



PITTSBURG, PA. 



BUDA FOUNDRY 

& MFG. CO. 

Manufacturers of 

Standard Section Hand and Push Cars 
Pneumatic Railway Crossing Gates 
Switches^ Frogs and Crossings 
Switch Stands and Fixtures 
Paulus Automatic-feed Track Drills 
Buda & Wilson Track Drills 
Track Gauges, Car Replacers 
Rail Benders 
Track Jacks 
Pressed Steel Wheels, Etc., Etc., 



L 



THE PAIGE IRON WORKS 

is the Ffog and Crossing Department 
of the 

BUDA FOUNDRY & MFG. CO. 

Works at CHICAGO OFFICE 

HARVEY, ILL. 637 Railway Exchangfe 



GIBRALTAR 
BUMPING POST 

ALL HETAL. 




WITH OR WITHOUT TRACK=RAILS 

No expensive foundations. Built 
on strict engineering principles. 

EASILY INSTALLED CHEAPLY MAINTAINED 

McCORD & CO. 

OLD COLONY BLDQ. 24 BROAD STREET 

CHICAGO, ILL. NEW YORK 





Ho. 



725 Marquette Building, Gliicago 

Manufacturers of 

IMPROVED 

TRACK EQUIPMENT 



''STROM" CLAMP FROGS 

"CHANNEL," ''TRANSIT" AND "GAUGE" 

SPLIT SWITCHES 

"ARROW," "AXEL," "BANNER," "CROWN," 

"GLOBE," "KNOB," "HUB," AND 

"STAR" SWITCH STANDS 

"SAMSON" WROUGHT HEAD CHAIRS 

SOLID END TIE BARS 

IMPROVED SPRING RAIL FROGS 

IMPROVED STEEL RAIL CROSSINGS 

"VULCAN" STEP JOINTS 

"ALKINS" FORGED STEEL RAIL BRACES 

"JENNE" TRACK JACKS 

"ROLLER" RAIL BENDERS 

"BALL," "UNION" AND "PERFECTION" 

TRACK DRILLS. 

First-class Material and Workmanship. Prompt Shipments. 





iken i Co. 



V 




The cone in above illusti-ation shows the manner in which the 
lines of force work v.hen baclvward strain is placed on Stom- 
bangh Guy Anchors, hence their great holding power. 

FOR A QUICK, EFFICIENT AN- 
CHORAGE AT WRECKS. DERAIL- 
MENTS, ETC., USE THE TWELVE- 
INCH 




STOilBAUGH GUY ANCHORS 

THEY WILL HOLD 

36100 LOS. 

FOR GUYING 

Fences, Telephone and Tele- 
graph Poles Use the VA, 5 
and 6-Inch Anchors . . . 

Wrenches must be used to 
install S14, 5 and 6-inch 
anchors 

W. N. MATTHEWS & BRO. 

DISTRIBUTERS 

200 CARLETON BUILDING, ST. LOUIS 




o 




UR policy has always been 
to build the very best 
Jack that the best mate- 
rial and most skillful 
workmanship can produce. 

We refuse to sacrifice quality to 
cost. Making rams with the 
flange which fastens by a screw 
thread in the head, solid without 
welds ; may cost us more, but we 
get the quality we aim for. 

To bore the cylinders from solid high carbon 
steel may take more labor and time than if we 
used castings or seamless tubing, but we build all 
the better Jack for it.. 

Our line covers nearly 300 styles of Jacks for 
lifting, pushing or pulling, still if the particular 
Jack you require is not among the number we 
make, we are ready to build it for you. 

Remember WATSON-STILLMAN JACKS 
cost no more than any other make. 



Our illustrated index No. 65 sliozvs 
the large variety of Hydraulic Tools 
zve manufacture for Railroad use. 
Send for one. 

NEW YOR.K OFFICE. 46 DEY ST. 
CHICAGO OFFICE. 453 THE ROOKERY 
WORKS. - ALDENE. N.J. 




mmmsmmMm 




GASOLIIME IVIOTOR CARS 

Several designs in 3 and 4 Wheel Cars 
Convenient, Swiff, Reliable, Econoniical 



JACKS 

Automatic Lowering 
and Trip 

FOR 

Track Work 
Ballasting 
Bridge Gangs 
Car Repairing 
Oil Boxes, Etc. 



FAIRBAIVKS, IVIORSE & CO. 




Detroit, Mich. 
Indianapolis, Ind. 
St. Paul, Minn. 
Denver, Colo. 
Portland, Ore. 



CHICAGO, 

Cleveland, O. 
Louisville, Ky. 
New York, N. Y. 
Minneapolis, Minn. 
San Francisco, Cal. 
Cincinnati, O. 



St. Louis, Mo. 
Kansas City, Mo. 
Salt Lake City, Utah. 
Omaha, Neb. 
Los Angeles, Cal. 
London, Eng. 




SECTION HAND CARS 

Lightest— Most Easy Running 
Pressed Steel Wheels, Machine Cut Gears 
Tapering Wheel Pit— No keys required 
Largest variety of designs for all purposes 

PUSH CARS, TRACKLAYINQ CARS 

VELOCIPEDE CARS, DUMP CARS 

CATTLE GUARDS, WATER COLUMNS 
TANKS AND FIXTURES, STEAM PUHPS 

GASOLINE ENGINES, TURNTABLE MOTORS 

BALLAST LOADERS, RAILBENDERS 



FAIRBANKS, MORSE & CO. 



Detroit, Mich. 
Indianapolis, Ind. 
St. Paul, Minn. 
Denver, Colo. 
Portland, Ore. 



CHICAGO, ILL. 

Cleveland, O. 
Louisville, Ky. 
New York, N. Y. 
Minneapolis, Minn. 
San Fransisco, Cal. 
Cincinnati, O. 



St. Louis, Mo. 
Kansas City, Mo. 
Salt Lake City, Utah. 
Omaha, Neb. 
Los Angeles, Cal. 
London, Eng. 



J 



TRACK TOOLS 




FAIR.BANKS, MOR.SE <& CO. 



OHIOA.0^0, IL^Iv 



Cleveland, O. 
Louisville, Kv. 
New York, N. y. 
Minneapolis, Minn. 
San Francisco, Cal. 
Cincinnati, O. 
Send for Complete CataLlojue No. 52 



Detroit, Mich. 
Indianapolis, Ind. 
St. Paul, Minn. 
Denver, Colo. 
Portland, Ore. 



St. Louis, Mo. 
Kansas City, Mo. 
Salt Lake City, Utah. 
Omaha, Neb. 
Los Angeles, Cal. 
London, Eng. 






5fe 



WEBER RAILWAY JOINT 
MFG. CO. 



GENERAL OFFICES 

EMPIRE BUlLDiNG, NEW YORK 




STANDARD "T" RAIL JOINT 



All the articles manufactured by this Company are 

thoroughly protected under numerous United 

States and Foreign Patents. 



WEIR 
FROG CO., 

CINCINNATI, OHIO. 



WE MAKE 

Ninety Designs of Split Switches 

Sixty Designs of Spring Frogs 

Thirty Designs of Railroad Crossings 

Twenty Designs of Rigid Frogs 

Twenty-five Designs of Switchstands— 
Fixed and Automatic 

Rail Braces, Head Chairs, Tie Bars, &c. 

Special Work for Steam and Electric 
Roads 

WRITE TO us FOR PRICES AND 
DESIGNS AND SEND YOUR 
SPECIFICATIONS . . . . 



OUR NEW SHOP IS ON THE PENN- 
SYLVANIA LINES, C, L. & N. R. R. 

ADDRESS MAIL TO STATION H. 



GOLD MEDAL AWARD, ST. LOUIS 
EXPOSITION, J904. 

Over 20,000 Miles in Use 



REPRESENTATIVES SALES DEPARTMENT 

B. M. BARR, Newark, N. J. 
JOHN H, ALLEN, Newark, N. J. A. P. HAGAR, Newark, N. J. 

WM. E. CLARK, Montreal, Can. 

W. A. CHAPMAN, John Hancock Building, Boston, Mass. 
V. C. ARMSTRONG, D. J. EVANS, Monadnock Bldg., Chicago, 111. 
F. C. WEBB, Equitable Building, Denver, Colo. 
J. G. MILLER, Commonwealth Trust Building, St. Louis, Mo. 
CHAS. B. KAUFMAN, Wells Fargo Building, San Francisco, Cal. 
GEO. W. EVANS & CO., 417 Washington Bldg., Seattle, Wash. 
W. H. S. WRIGHT, St. Paul, Minn., Pioneer Press Building. 
L. P. WINBY, 20 King William St., London, England. 



RAIL JOINTS. STEP JOINTS, INSULATING JOINTS 

AND 

ELECTRIC BONDING JOINTS 
CONTINUOUS RAIL JOINT CO., OF AMERICA 

General Offices: Century Buildings, Newark, N. J. 

TELEPHONE 822 L. F. BRAINE, General Manager 




Deacidified using the Bookkeeper pre 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxid( 
Treatment Date: April 2004 

PreservationTechnoloj 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERV 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 1606f 
(724)779-2111 



THE GOODWIN GAR 

FOR 

COAL, COKE, ORE 

AND OTHER DUMPABLE MATERIALS 




FILLING, BALLASTING, TRACK-RAISING 

The ONLY Car that lands its load on 
either or both sides or in the center, 
entire train or single car, with one move 
of single lever. 

LOAD RESTS UPON INCLINED 
PLANE; TO DISCHARGE, JUST LET 
JT SLIDE. 

GOODWIN CAR COMPANY 

96 Fifth Ave., NEW YORK CITY 

I 15 Dearborn St., CHICAGO, ILL. 

CARS LEASED AND SOLD. 



MAR 31 1905 



r 



THE BUCVRUS COMPANY 

South Milwaukee, Wisconsin 




STEAM SHOVELS AND DREDGES 

EXCAVATING MACHINERY of every type 

RAILROAD WRECKING CRANES and PILE DRIVERS 

CENTRIFUGAL DREDGING PUMPS 



THE BUCKEYE LIGHT 




IS ALL 
AMERICAN :: :: 
MANUFACTURE 



Has won Golden opinions 

from all users, and 

is recognized as 

THE STANDARD 

on many of the largest 

Railroads 



We also build SAND BLASTS, OIL FURNACES 
for Melting Lead, STRONG BLOW TORCHES 
for Heavy Metal Heating, etc. 




THE BUCKEYE 

PAINT AND 

WHITEWASH 

SPRAYERS 

are the 

BEST 

of their kind 



WALTER MACLEOD & CO. 



Front Street, East. 



CINCINNATI, OHIO, U. S. A. 



